英语写作段落扩展的方法（实用20篇）

导语：英语写作是一种创作性的学习过程。下面是小编收集的小升初英语作文写作技巧，欢迎大家阅读!

英语写作是一种创作性的学习过程。启动知识信息储存，构思立意，谋篇布局，遣词造句，对语言表达的正确性和准确性、思维的逻辑性和文章的条理性都比口语要求更高。通常英语写作有以下几个特点：紧扣教学大纲对考生书面表达的要求;以有指导的写作为主(guidedwriting)，便于考生在短时间内构思成文;突出试题的交际性，考查考生在特定的情景中运用语言的能力;增强试题的实用性，所选话题贴近学生学习生活，为学生所熟悉;看图作文主要考查考生运用所学知识解决实际问题的能力。

英语写作注意两点

一、先审题，弄清写作要求审题是写好作文的前提，也是书面表达的基础。如果写偏了题，语言表达再好也很难得高分。审题时要注意两个方面：

1.认真地看两遍题目，包括提示，全面了解写作要求。

2.理清思路，确定体裁、框架结构和内容。

二、用英语进行思维英语写作时必须排除汉语思维的干扰。

从现在起应逐渐加大阅读量和听的输入量，将阅读、听力训练与书面表达有机地结合起来。经常体会和领悟作者传递信息和表达思想的方式。在话题讨论和写作中经常运用所学到的表达方式就会有所创造。还要尽量做到“五多”：多看、多听、多思考、多用心体验和感悟身边的人和事、多用英语说和写自己的体验和感受。

最后一个月如何训练英语写作

1.重视增加阅读量是提高英语写作的途径之一。

目前，考生在进行大量阅读的同时，应注重所读材料的文章结构以及连接词的运用(ontheotherhand，however，furthermore)、作者的表达方式(词汇、习惯用语和典型句子的使用)、作者是如何进行叙述和议论的。

2.在教师的指导下，平时应勤写多练。

练习写作应从基本功抓起。在中译英翻译训练过程中，加强积累适量的词汇、词组和增加各种类型句子的运用。把握好各种句型和词汇的搭配，并从各类题材和体裁着手，多阅读好的范文。然后模仿写作，作文写好之后，一般都要修改。第一遍收笔后，先看一看结构，然后从字词上推敲，使文章“充实”起来。更重要的是经老师修改过的作文一定要仔细地看一至两遍，然后再认真地抄写一遍，收获将会很大。

英文写作“四步走”

由于时间限制，考试时必须在所限定的时间内完成英语作文。英语作文步骤如下：

1)作文动笔之前一般都要先打腹稿。在确立中心上、运用材料上、篇章结构上，充分酝酿。

2)考虑好想写多少句子，该用哪些动词和词组等。

3)边写边思考内容的连贯性，语言和句子的准确性。

4)写完后一定要再细看一遍。

主要体裁作文写作技巧

(一)写提示议论文应考虑的几点：

1.文章开头，能依据提示确立主题句(topic)阐明观点或看法。

2.会使用连接词分层次说明理由、缘由(supportingsentences)。

3.归纳总结，首尾呼应。

(二)看图作文应考虑的几点：

1.看懂图片，把图片展示的人物、地点、时间、事件等有机地串联起来，使之成为内容连贯的句子。

2.确定短文须用的时态和该用的人称。

3.确定体裁(说明文还是记叙文)，接着用简洁的语句描述图片或图表大意。

4.根据图片或图表大意议论。

议论文写作是几种常见文体中要求较高的一种。下面语文迷网整理了一些写作方法，希望对你有帮助。

一、议论文的文体特点和写作要求

英语议论文同中文议论文一样也是以议论的方式，通过摆事实、讲道理来阐述自己观点的一种文体。高中英语议论文是一种限制性的写作, 其论点、论据、论证都必须十分明确，学生必须结合题目要求来阐述相关观点。

议论文的结构可分为三个部分：1、引言段引出一个令人关注的问题或明白地亮出自己的观点，如提倡什么，支持什么，反对什么。 2、主体段对提出的问题进行分析、推论、并运用归纳法、演绎法和类比法等进行论证，取得以理服人的效果。3、结论段可以用两三句话来结束文章，同时要注意重申论点，与引言段呼应，但不能照搬原话。务必做到论点明确、要点齐全、论证严密、结构严谨、层次分明、首尾呼应。

二、议论文的写作方法与技巧

一)、审好题

人们常说：“磨刀不误砍柴功”。审题是写作的开始，是写好作文的前提条件，“好的开始是成功的一半”，议论文写作也不例外。只有明确题目要求，确立观点，确定论证方法及全文段落安排，才可能成功写出一篇好的议论文。如果写偏了题，再精心的构思、再好的语言表达也是枉然。审题主要包括六个方面：一是判断议论文所属类型。英语议论文根据命题特点，从形式上来看可分为如下类型: ①“一分为二”的观点。如：“轿车大量进入家庭后，对家庭、环境、经济可能产生的影响”。②“两者选一”的观点。如：“乘火车还是乘飞机”。③“我认为……”型，如：“你对课外阅读的看法”。④“怎样……(how to)”型，如：“怎样克服学习中碰到的困难”。⑤ 图表作文，通过阅读图表中的数字与项目得出一个结论或形成一种看法(杨家贵，2005)。二是确立该文的论点或作者须持的观点，以及支撑论点的道理和事实。三是确定全文所包括的要点。四是确定段落数及每段适用的连接词、过渡句，使文章连接紧凑、过渡自然、层次分明。五是选择全文主要时态及各段适用的其它时态。六是判断该文的格式，是书信还是短文。审题完毕，随即列出提纲。

二)、注重主题句的设置

主题句又叫中心句(topic sentence)，是段落的论点，限制段落中议论的范围，是整个段落的纲领。主题句必须要正确，要明确表明作者赞成什么，反对什么。主题句在一篇百来字的议论文中好比“画龙点睛”，帮助作者分层次阐述自己的观点，让读者快速了解作者的观点。

1、确定主题句的位置

英语议论文的主题句宜设在段首第一句，这是由以下两个因素决定的。1)、主题句出现的位置有三种情况：①在段首，以便读者浏览主题句就可掌握文章的概要，这个位置适用于写提供信息或解释观点的段落;②在段末;③段中(高长梅，2000)。2)、英语民族的思维特点是常采用路标式(直线式)篇章结构，即主题句在段首。

2、写出好的主题句

好的主题句具有以下特点：①有一定的概括性，普遍性而不是罗列具体事实。②句意明确而不是模糊不着边际。③让人有话可写而不是给出无可辩驳的事实。④不以问题的方式出现，也不要同时表达两个以上的观点。笔者要求学生写了以下的主题句：

1)Staying up late is bad for our health.

2)The more cars, the better?

3)There are two reasons why some people are fascinated by Super Girls and two reasons why some dislike them.

4)Beijing is famous for the Great Wall, the Summer Palace, the Imperial Palace and other places of interest.

5)a. Tom is a middle school student.

b. Tom is a hard-working middle school student.

6)Living in small cities is better than living in big cities.

然后让学生对照主题句的特点，他们一致认为1)、5)b、6)为好的主题句。在实践和对比中，学生学会了如何写好的主题句，并且运用到议论文写作中，收到较好效果，见以下实例(下段黑体部分是主题句)。

Everyone lives by selling something. For example, teachers live by selling knowledge, philosophers by selling wisdom and priests by selling spiritual comfort. Though it may be possible to measure the value of material goods in terms of money, it is extremely difficult to calculate the true value of services which people perform for us. The conditions of society are such that skills have to be paid for in the same way that goods are paid for at a shop. Everyone has something to sell.

由此可见，好的主题句能帮助作者阐明观点，起到提纲挈领的作用。作者围绕段落的中心论点，运用多种方法展开论证，达到以理服人的效果。

三)、用好连接词和过渡句

从行文需要出发选用恰当的连接词、过渡句可使整篇文章文句流畅，句意转换自然，同时使表达合乎逻辑，文章结构严谨。倘若一篇议论文的段落里不乏高级词汇和复杂语法结构，但缺少了连接词、过渡句的润色而不能从一个观点自然地过渡到另一个观点，或段落里的各论据(supporting sentence)连接松散，势必削弱论证的效果，就算不上一篇好的议论文。下面分别说明如何有效运用连接词与过渡句。

1、句与句的连接词

连接词通常由连词、副词、介词短语和插入语等充当。如何有效使用连接词，使句意连贯、紧凑，以体现文章良好的严密的论证逻辑?

2.段与段的过渡句

过渡句帮助作者展示文章的条理和层次。恰当运用过渡句能使表达锦上添花。当文章从一个层次转换到另一个层次，或由一段内容转入另一段内容时需要用过渡句。恰当有效的运用过渡句，效果明显(见下文，题目及要求略，黑体部分为过渡句)。

Wearing school uniform every day spreads an order over many schools. Is it good or bad for students? Different people, however, have different opinions on this matter.

Some people say that it has a bad effect on developing students’ personal character. According to them, students are tired of wearing the same clothes every day, which is hard to tell who’s who. Furthermore, the cost of the school uniform is not low as many people think. With the bad quality, it’s not well worth the money.

However, as a popular saying goes: “Every coin has two sides.” Others argue that it is good for students. In their opinion, wearing school uniform will prevent students from wasting so much money on clothes and the time on catching up with the fashion. In addition, it’s easy for the teachers to recognize the students. There is no doubt that wearing school uniform every day is good for students.

In short, I firmly support the view that we should wear school uniform.(康珍，2005)

上文黑体部分综合体现了恰当、有效运用连接词和过渡句的最佳效果。全文行文流畅、衔接自然、条理清楚，浑然不觉作者是在套用各种连接词和过渡句。因此，非常有必要熟记一些常用典型的议论文过渡句，使议论文结构严谨，论点清楚，行文流畅。

1)引言段的常用过渡句

Recently we had a heated discussion on…, Opinions are various among different people.

Different people have different opinions on the question of …

They differ greatly in their attitudes towards …

Different people hold different views/opinions on this matter.

Although most people think… I believe…

此类过渡句能迅速引起读者注意，自然而然地引出全文要讨论的话题，或者开门见山地阐明文章的论点。

2)主体段的常用过渡句

Some may hold the view that… because… But others have a negative attitude. From their point of view…

Some people think that… While others believe…

Some people are for the idea of… because… But some people are against the idea of… because …

本文所指议论文的主体段可以是一段也可以是两段。通过正确使用过渡句，文章思路清晰，结构清楚，显示作者严谨思维，增强表达效果。

3)结论段的常用过渡句

As far as I am concerned, I totally agree with the statement that…

Therefore, it’s easy to draw the conclusion that…

As a consequence/result, I firmly support the view that…

Taking all these factors into consideration, we may reach the conclusion that…

To sum up/in a word/in conclusion/in short/above all/in general/ generally speaking, I still hold the view that…

运用过渡句的提示作用进入结论段，作者或是重申论点，或是强调论点，以便加深读者对全文的了解和深刻认识。

英语议论文范文：

Should Examination Be Abolished (取消)?

The examination system has come to be the main theme (主题)of modern education. One should take an examination andsucceed in passing it before he could be admitted， promoted or graduated. As it plays so important a role in the realm of education (教育的领域) it is under much criticism (评论) as to its validity (有效性) . People who are in favour of it try to develop this system more; those who are against it believe that such a system should be abolished. Should examination be abolished? In my opinion it should be.

Many people think that an examination is the only means to test knowledge， but， in fact， that is not true. A few questions given in an examination could by no means cover the whole field of the subject. Thus those who are able to answer them may be the poorest of the students and yet happen to know just a few points about that subject.

Id like to say that， because of the existence of the examination system， students pay so much attention to gaining high marks， that they often forget the chief purpose of education. The so-called clever students devote (贡献) themselves to the study of textbooks only. They， of course， know nothing but the skeleton (梗概) of knowledge. The end and aim of education， however， is to enable students to learn how to live. To do this， students must get themselves to do all kinds of training， physicalas well as mental. The present examination system has discouraged students from making such an attempt.

Moreover， since the students try so hard to put their lessons into memory in as short a time as possible， psychologically (心理上来看)， they soon forget the whole subject as soon as the examination is over. Surely this is one of the greatest wastes ever made in the history of civilization.

Lastly， in order to get high marks， there is a great temptation (诱惑) for students to cheat (作弊) in an examination. Indeed， such a practice becomes the means to the end. They cheat their teachers， their parents and also themselves. Such a tendency would impair (损害) our moral standards (道德标准) .

Therefore， I am of the opinion， in conclusion， that the examination system should be abolished.

自我感觉良好。座右铭是：做与不做是一回事，做不做得到是另一回事儿。勇于拼搏，积极进取。觉得人生就像“马拉松”，跑完一程又一程，感受着追求的快感，不在乎结果，却讲究过程。

在档案里突然发现，我都已经不记得那时侯这么给自己评价的。但是我当时觉得我的人生可能就到此为颠峰了吧，那是我最快乐也是最有活力跟冲劲的时候。

曾经很想找回那时的感觉，最后发现不太可能。

但是我会想跑一程，跑起来就会觉的没有什么不可能的。

引用一个网友的心得：“很正常，一般人都无法想象，一个人在途中连续跑好几个小时，他脑子里会想些什么，他到底又为了什么。经历过的人会明白，那几个小时中，脑子里什么都想，喜怒哀乐，人生的一切，甚至包括对人生的迷茫和对生命的感悟，有激动，有欣喜，有孤单，有痛苦，有坚持，有希望……正如跑版那句耳熟能详的名言：人生就是一场马拉松，领先和落后都是暂时的，唯有拼搏向前才是永恒。我很庆幸，在马拉松，我找到了自己的精神支柱。”

我也很庆幸，我跑了那个1500。

为了那个1500，有几天早上不搭车就跑到学校，经常沿着江滩跑，可以看到城市日出，可以和晨练的老人聊上几句，可以感受一种祥和、平静，就象神在我左右。我闭上眼睛，屏住呼吸，小鸟就会自然落到我肩上，阳光也会照在我的侧脸。我就会很温暖，和周围空气一样温暖得可以融合到一起。这样就很幸福很满足了！

如何把作文写好一直困扰着各年级的学生，下面小编来给大家介绍提高写作的方法，希望对大家有帮助!

1.阅读优秀的作品：这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2.尽可能多的写：每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3.随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片)，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

4.专门的写作时间：每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5.随便涂鸦：面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

6.集中精神：写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

7.先计划，再写： 这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

8.创新： 你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

9.修改： 你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10.简明扼要： 这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11.富于感染力的句子：在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12.获取别人的反馈： 闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

13.是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜：就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

14.采用对话式的文体： 很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

15.好开头和结尾： 开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多…写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。

感要多 读要少，要善于灵活掌握。小编整理了读后感的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

通常有三种写法:一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落.今天，咱们就重点来谈谈第二种.题目可以用《×××读后感》，也可以用《读×××有感》.

首先要审清题目.在写作时，要分辨什么是主要的，什么是次要的，力求做到"读"能抓住重点，"感"能写出体会.

其次要选择材料.读是写的基础，只有读得认真仔细，才能深入理解文章内容，从而抓住重点，把握文章的思想感情，才能有所感受，有所体会;只有认真读书才能找到读感之间的联系点来，这个点就是文章的中心思想，就是文中点明中心思想的句子.对一篇作品，写体会时不能面面俱到，应写自己读后在思想上，行动上的变化，摘取其中的某一点做文章.

第三，写读后感应以所读作品的内容简介开头，然后，再写体会.原文内容往往用3~4句话概括为宜.结尾也大多再回到所读的作品上来.要把重点放在"感"字上，切记要联系自己的生活实际.

最后，写读后感的注意事项:①写读后感绝不是对原文的抄录或简单地复述，不能脱离原文任意发挥，应以写"体会"为主.②要写得有真情实感.应是发自内心深处的感受，绝非"检讨书"或"保证书".③要写出独特的新鲜感受，力求有新意的见解来吸引读者或感染读者.

例文

我要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁

——《钢铁是怎样炼成的》读后感

《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书使我爱不释手，保尔 柯察金那顽强的品格多么令人钦佩!如果你读了这本书，就会明白具有钢铁品质的人是"大写"的人.

保尔一生十分坎坷，在双目失明的情况下他还坚持写书，对自己毫不顾惜.书中写道:他呕心沥血写的稿件丢失了，多么令他灰心失望啊，但他重新振作起来，用顽强的毅力完成了巨著.书中有段名言脍炙人口:"人的生命是最宝贵的.当他回首往事的时候，不应该为碌碌无为而悔恨……."保尔可谓强者的化身.

对照保尔，想想自己，感到脸上一阵阵烘热.记得今年大年初一，家家户户沉浸在节日的气氛中，我家却十分冷清.爸爸工作繁忙出差了，妈妈因病卧床不起.听着孩子们在外面的嬉闹声，我的眼泪在眼眶里直打转，片刻就"簌簌"落下眼泪来.妈妈见我落泪了，指着床头的书说:"轩轩，那本《钢铁是怎样炼成的》你看完了吗

"我再次把这本书翻阅，保尔的形象又浮现在眼前.对，我该做一个坚强的男子汉!我应该为家人分忧解难，决定下厨做饭菜.妈妈脸上露出了笑容，紧紧拉住我的手说:"你真是咱们家顶天立地的男子汉啊!"我指着《钢铁是怎样炼成的》这本书说:"是它教会我的!"

每当我遇到困难而退缩时，每当我受挫折而落泪时，我就会想起保尔那高大的身影，要把自己炼成一块真正的钢铁!

评语:这篇读后感的特点是:有感而发，情感真挚.小作者阅读了《钢铁是怎样炼成的》一书后，对保尔这一主人公产生了敬仰之情，称赞他是"强者的化身".当自己在生活中遇到困难时，用保尔这一榜样鞭策自我做生活中的男子汉.篇末紧扣文题，用"每当……就……"的句式表明了自己的抱负，是画龙点睛之笔.

写好读后感活用"四字诀"

读后感是议论文中最常见的文体之一，也是初高中学生必须掌握的一种文体.但从以往读后感训练的情况来看，效果并不尽人意.其实，写好读后感也有章可循.若活用"四字诀"，则更容易生效.

一，引--围绕感点，引述材料.读后感重在"感"，而这个"感"是由特定的"读"生发的，"引"是"感"的落脚点，所谓"引"就是围绕感点，有的放矢的引用原文:材料精短的，可全文引述;材料长的，或摘录"引"发"感"的关键词，句，或概述引发"感"的要点.不管采用哪种方式引述，"引"都要简练，准确，有针对性.

二，议--分析材料，提练感点.在引出"读"的内容后，要对"读"进行一番评析.既可就事论事对所"引"的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地"亮"出自己的感点.

三，联--联系实际，纵横拓展.写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈.就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅.泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼.联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题.既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手.当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应"引"部，使"联"与"引""藕"断而"丝"连.

四，结--总结全文，升华感点.总结既可以回应前文，强调感点;也可以提出希望，发出号召.不管采用哪种方式结尾，都必须与前文贯通，浑然一体.读后感始终要受"读"的约束，开头要引"读"，中间还要不时地回扣"读"的内容，结尾也要恰当回扣"读"的内容不放松.

当然要写好读后感，关键还要读透材料，抓准感点.怎样读透材料

一般说，如果是记叙文，就要抓住人物最突出的某种品质，最有价值的语言行动或事件所包含的深刻意义;如果是议论文，就要把握中心论点;如果是寓言或哲理性的散文，就要领会其深刻的寓意.当然，读一篇文章，感可能是多方面的，要在分析，思考的基础上，选择最值得发表，感受最深，见解新颖独到，最有针对性和现实感的感受来写，一篇读后感只能容纳一个感点，其他感点无论多么好，都要忍痛割爱.明智之举是抓住一点，不及其余，并围绕一个感点，联系实际，谈深谈透.

如何指导学生写读后感

学生写好读后感，历来是一件较辣手的问题.要写好读后感，指导是关键.我是如何指导学生写好读后感呢 体会是:

一，指导审题，理清题意

写好读后感，审题理清题意是关键.例如指导学生写《养花》一文的读后感.

养花

我爱花，所以也爱养花。我可还没成为养花专家，因为没有工夫去研究和试验。我只把养花当作生活中的一种乐趣，花开得大小好坏都不计较，只要开花，我就高兴。在我的小院中，到夏天，满是花草，小猫儿们只好上房去玩，地上没有它们的运动场。

花虽多，但是没有奇花异草。珍贵的花草不易养活，看着一棵好花生病要死，是件难过的事。北京的气候，对养花来说不算很好，冬天冷，春天多风，夏天不是干旱就是大雨倾盆，秋天最好，可是会忽然闹霜冻。在这种气候里，想把南方的好花养活，我还没有那么大的本事。因此，我只养些好种易活的自己会奋斗的花草。

不过，尽管花草自己会奋斗，我若是置之不理，任其自生自灭，大半还是会死的。我得天天照管它们，像好朋友似的关切它们。一来二去，我摸着一些门道：有的喜阴，就别放在太阳地里，有的喜干，就别多浇水。这是个乐趣，摸着门道，花草养活了，而且三年五载老活着，开花，多么有意思呀!不是乱吹，这就是知识呀!多得些知识决不是坏事。

我不是有腿病吗，不但不利于行，也不利于久坐。我不知道花草受我的照顾，感谢我不感谢;我可得感谢它们。我工作的时候，总是写一会儿就到院中去看看，浇浇这棵，搬搬那盆，然后回到屋中再写一会儿，然后再出去。如此循环，把脑力劳动和体力劳动得到适当的调节，有益身心，胜于吃药。要是赶上狂风暴雨或天气突变，就得全家动员，抢救花草，十分紧张。几百盆花，都要很快地抢到屋里去，使人腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。第二天，天气好转，又得把花儿都搬出去，就又一次腰酸腿疼，热汗直流。可是，这多么有意思呀!不劳动，连棵花儿也养不活，这难道不是真理吗?

送牛奶的同志进门就夸"好香"，这使我们全家都感到骄傲。赶到昙花开放的时候，约几位朋友来看看，更有秉烛夜游的味道——昙花总在夜里放蕊。花分根了，一棵分为数棵，就赠给朋友们一些;看着友人拿走自己的劳动果实，心里自然特别喜欢。

当然，也有伤心的时候，今年夏天就有这么一回。三百株菊秧还在地上(没到移入盆中的时候)，下了暴雨。邻家的墙倒了，菊秧被砸死者约三十多种，一百多棵，全家都几天没有笑容。

有喜有忧，有笑有泪，有花有果，有香有色。既须劳动，又长见识，这就是养花的乐趣。

首先让学生明白"感"是什么

"感"就是要求写自己怎样体会文章的思想感情.接着要求学生要联系自己的实际来写，可以先讲作者怎样说，怎样做，然后写自己"悟"出什么道理.

如何给文章定目呢

读后感题目多种多样，既可以直接题目，如:《养花》读后感;也可以用一句话或一个词做正题，如:学习要善于摸门道—《养花》有感.

总之，要使学生弄清题目要求，写作上要求，审题最关键.

二，抓中心，定要点

《养花》这篇文章写读后感，就是要体会文章的思想感情.所谓"文章的思想感情"即是中心思想，写体会的读后感，"感"应该围绕中心思想去开展.

第一步:先让学生回忆《养花》一文的中心思想，理清要点.第二步:我归纳习作要求，《养花》这篇文章抓住三个要点:①，养花能增长知识.②，养花能调节脑力劳动.③，养花可以创造劳动果实，发展友谊.

三，抓住要点，联系实际，理清结构

首先我让学生讨论《养花》一文几个要点，有几个方面体会较深.接着指导如何联系实际谈体会，最后介绍写读书笔记的两种方法:

1，先叙后议.方法是:先介绍什么书，讲了什么内容，反映什么中心思想，围绕中心结合自已例子说感受，最后写对自己的教育.

2，夹叙夹议.即围绕中心抓两三点，联系实际，扣紧原文发表感情，或者抓住文章的中心句去开展议论.

四，指导几种开头方法

1，开头谈总的感受.如:最近我读了老舍先生《养花》一文，觉得越读越有味道……接着再谈自己领会最深的那几点.第二段逐点谈体会，结尾小结全文，谈谈自己的打算.

2，开头提出问题.如:学习上难免有挫折，一个学生该怎样对待挫折呢

最近学习了老舍《养花》一文很受教育.然后参照上一种写法，从第二段开始，逐点谈体会.

3，开头指出某种不良现象.如:班上有些同学把读书看成是苦差事，在操场上生龙活虎，在课堂上垂头丧气，这是什么原因呢

然后引出《养花》这篇文章，逐点谈体会.

英语是占据分数比较多的，所以写好英语作文很重要。小编整理了关于文明的英语作文，快来看看吧。

【预测作文】文明旅游

【猜题理由】有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

【预测题目】文明旅游

写作内容：1. 以约30个词概括短文的要点;

2. 以约120个词写一篇短文，就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表你的看法，内容包括：

(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

【参考范文】

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project.(124 words)

英语写作指导：

英语学习中，在英语书面表达时，每次写作前问自己四个问题：这篇文章的体裁格式是怎样的?主体时态用什么时态?人称用第几人称?可以分几段，之间用什么过渡词、连接词?带着这四个问题去审题，搞清楚文章的主要内容，然后列出提纲。最后利用自己有把握的英语句子丰富自己的提纲就可以了。

(1)条理性。指的是合理布局文章结构。首先，在文章思路、组织材料、叙述顺序等方面要有一定的条理性。其次，根据需要，安排好段落，各段之间要层次分明，也要重视每一段的开头和结尾，开头语往往是总起句，结尾语往往是总结句。

(2)准确性。指要求写出语法正确的句子，包括时态、语态、用词和句法等，要准确、地道地表达。必须要牢牢掌握一些常用句型或习惯表达，避免中式英语，在实践中不断总结中英用法的差异，养成用英语思维写作的习惯。高考英语作文素材。

(3)流畅性。指根据整篇文章思想的需要，有效采用不同的连接手段，清晰段落，使文章层次清楚、行文连贯。

(4)简洁多样性。简洁性就是语言简洁，不重复。多样性就是能随情景内容的变化写出句式多样的语句。这也是新课程标准对写作的评价标准。

(5)思想性。新标准对写作的要求，增加了情感因素，在准确流畅表达写作要点的同时，适当增加句子的感情色彩，增加一些人情味，使文章读起来更亲切，完全达到与读者进行交流的目的。

(6)美观性。指的是卷面书写规范、清楚、干净、整洁。在高考书面表达中，书面整洁是也是一个主观评分标准，所以在高考中保持书面整洁是必要的。

总结：那么在高考作文中，除了自己的一些英语知识的巩固还需要的是自己的情绪和思维。写作期间保持稳定的情绪，按照自己的思维完成写作，从总结文章中—布置文章结构—使用表达的语句—下笔连贯。最后当然是要检查是否出现拼错字，句子语法有误等。

导语：小编来讲讲散文，如何做到形散神凝，如何做到情动于衷，如何做到言发于外?下面一一道来。

一、散文最大的特点就是“形散而神聚”

这一点是我们在写作时必须要把握的。所谓"形"指的是散文的外在形式，比如选材、结构、表达方式、语言运用等。古往今来，天文地理、历史文化等方面都可以作为散文的材料。所谓”神"指的是散文的主题，散文的主题要集中、明确，不能让人读了半天也不知道到底写的是什么。所谓"形散而神聚"就是说，在写作时，材料可以广选博采，结构可以灵活安排，但是这些材料一定要围绕一个中心展开，服务中心，能表现一个共同的主题。

二、把握好立意

“意”即中心，它是文章的灵魂。我们在写散文就是把握好立意，确定好写作的中心，弄清楚自己到底要表达什么。这样，写出来的文章读者才能理解。另外，也只有把握好立意，才能更好地选材，安排文章的结构。散文也语言十分重要。首要的一条是以口语为基础，而文语(包括古语和欧化语)为点缀。其次是要清新自然，优美洗练。此外，还可以讲究一些语言技法，如句式长短相间，随物赋形，如多用修辞特别是比喻，如讲音调、节奏、旋律的音乐美等。

立意从何而来?从生活中来。古人说得好：情动于外。只有触及到自己的心灵，才会有感受，才会有期望。列宁讲：缺少情感的认识，便失去了认识的深入。只有被浓厚的情感滲透时，才能得到力量，引起积极注，和思考。

要想把散文写好，从立意这个角度谈我们特别要注与别人的不同感受。越是富有个性的感受，立意也就会新颖，别具一格。这也就要求我们在平时注意留心观察生累写作素材。散文可以主要分为记叙散文和抒情散文(仍按传统的不明确的说法)两种。

三、善于联想和想象

通过联想和想象，可以把现实、过去与未来联系起来，由此及彼：一方面可以激发自己的某种感情与灵感;另一方面可以丰富文章的内容。比如：雪与纯洁、松与坚强、流水与时。绿色与环保……如果没有丰富的联想和想象，这些前后内容无法联系到一起的。实际上，我们越是善于联想和想象，外界物也就越能触动我们的情感，无论是写人还是叙事，无论是：景、状物还是发表议论，都可以游刃有余，从容应对，从而写好文章。

四、安排好线索

在一篇散文里，如果材料众多，就更需要安排好线索。通过恰当的线索将这些材料“串”到一起，体现材料之间的联系，形成一个清晰、有机的整体。散文的线索很多，常见的有感情、事件、人物、事物、景物、行踪、时间等。在具体写作时，选用哪一个要依据文章的内容来定。

一、帮助你的孩子提高写作技能

1.鼓励你的孩子培养他们的精细运动技能。需要用到手和手指的力度的肌肉活动能够帮助你的孩子在今后有一个良好的写作技能。你可以让你的孩子玩彩泥、撕纸或者是用塑料镊子夹东西。

2.找出你孩子的学校里面老师的书写方式。一些学校教给孩子们的是传统的书写方式，而另外的一些则不是。用合适的书写风格教你的孩子书写他们自己的名字和其他的家庭成员的名字。

3.为了提高孩子们的写作技能，父母应该鼓励孩子们每天都进行写作练习。为了避免孩子们遇到过多的挫折，你可以将这个练习限制在几分钟之内，除非孩子们自己要求进行更长时间的写作。通过这样的方法，孩子们的写作技能在一定时间之后就会有一定会的进步了。

二、帮助你的孩子提高阅读技巧

1.经常读书给你的孩子听。这样能够帮助你的孩子了解单词的读音和意思。阅读包括了解单词的拼写，同时还包括理解单词的含义。当你大声的朗读给你的孩子听的时候，你可以问他们对这个情节的理解和他们对这个单词的理解。

2.保持事物的新鲜。家长在带孩子们去图书馆的时候，可以让孩子们自己选择他们想要阅读的书籍。这时候，父母要注意孩子们感兴趣的书籍是什么，并且给孩子们找一些他们可能会感兴趣的书籍。同时，你也可以偶尔给孩子们买一些新书作为礼物。

3.和孩子们玩文字游戏。在冰箱上用磁铁拼出孩子们知道的单词。让孩子们用手指在沙子里面将看到的单词拼写出来。父母还可以和孩子们玩押韵游戏，并且将单词的尾字母指出来。给孩子们说一些绕口令，并且将开始的单词的发音指出来。

4.让你的孩子试着读书给你听，即使你的孩子可能还不能读的很流利。如果整个页面的单词都非常的复杂的话，那么就让他们读那些他们知道的单词。

〖训练目标〗

1、训练学生快速构思，快速写作的能力

2、训练学生感受、思考自己的身边生活并表达出来的能力

〖设题背景〗

初一学生的课堂上经常会发生一些小风波，比如，与老师冲突，课堂上同学之间打起架来，又或者是出现一些本不该在课堂上发生的事，通过设计一次写作，一举三得，既训练学生快速构思成文的能力，又训练学生感受思考和表达身边的事，还对学生进行思想和纪律教育。

〖题目与要求〗

题目：课堂上的小风波

要求：

1、事件记叙清楚完整，有自己的感受

2、600字以上

3、40分钟以内完成

〖作文指导〗

请选择其中最近在课堂上发生的一次小风波（本不该在课堂上出现的，它的出现使课堂的正常秩序出现了中断），记叙这次的发生的原因、经过和结果以及当时你的心理活动，过后的看法等等。

附：快速作文评分细则

文章本身：50分

字数与速度：50分

600字40分钟50

字数每多100字5分，少50字扣5分

时间每快3分钟加5分，每慢3分钟扣5分

英文写作中常用的句子有哪些?下面来看看小编为大家整理的内容吧。

Never think yourself above business.勿自视过高;不要眼高手低;永远不要认为自己是大才小用。

Life is measured by thought and action, not by time. 衡量生命的尺度是思想和行为，而不是时间。

It pays to help others. 帮助别人是值得的。

It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

He that thinks his business below him will always be above his business.自命大才小用，往往眼高手低。

Business may be troublesome,but idleness is pernicious.事业虽扰人，懒惰害更大。

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

We should bring home to people the value of working hard.我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

Time tries truth.时间检验真理。

Time past cannot be called back again.光阴一去不复返。

Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.违反交通规则的人应该受到处罚。

There is no one but longs to go to college.人们都希望上大学。

The progress of thee society is based on harmony.社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

The great use of life is to spend it for something that overlasts it.生命的最大用处是将它用于能比生命更长久的事物上。

Taking exercise is closely related to health.做运动与健康息息相关。

Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃作运动。

常用短语：

1. 有利有弊 Every coin has its two sides。(不推荐用。。。) No gardenwithout weeds。

2. 对…观点因人而异 Views on …vary from person to person。

3. 重视 attach great importance to…

4. 社会地位 social status

5. 把时间和精力放在…上 focus time and energy on…

6. 扩大知识面 expand one’s scopeof knowledge

7. 身心两方面 both physically and mentally

8. 有直接/间接关系 be directly / indirectly related to…

9. 提出折中提议 set forth a compromise proposal

10. 可以取代 “think”的词 believe, claim, hold the opinion/beliefthat

11. 缓解压力/ 减轻负担 relievestress/ burden

12. 优先考虑/发展… give (top) priority to sth。

13. 与…比较 compared with…/ in comparison with

14. 对这一问题持有不同态度 hold different attitudes towards this issue

15. 支持前/后种观点的人 people / those in favor of theformer/latteropinion

16. 有/ 提供如下理由/ 证据 have/ provide the followingreasons/evidence

17. 在一定程度上 to some extent/ degree / in some way

18. 理论和实践相结合 integratetheory with practice

19. …必然趋势 an irresistible trend of…

20. 日益激烈的社会竞争 the increasingly fierce social competition

21. 眼前利益 immediate interest/ short-term interest

22. 长远利益. interest in the long run

23. …有其自身的优缺点 … has its merits and demerits/ advantagesanddisadvantages

24. 扬长避短 Exploit to the full one’s favorableconditions andavoidunfavorable ones

25. 取其精髓，去其糟粕 Take the essence and discard the dregs。

26. 对…有害 do harm to / be harmful to/ be detrimental to

27. 交流思想/ 情感/ 信息 exchange ideas/ emotions/ information

28. 跟上…的最新发展 keep pace with / catch up with/ keep abreastwiththe latest development of …

29. 采取有效措施来… take effective measures to do sth。

30. …的健康发展 the healthy development of …

31. 相反 in contrast / on the contrary。

32. 代替 replace/ substitute / take the place of 大写)

33. 经不起推敲 cannot bear closer analysis / cannot hold water

34. 提供就业机会 offer job opportunities

35. 社会进步的反映 mirror of social progress

36. 毫无疑问 Undoubtedly, / There is no doubt that…

37. 增进相互了解 enhance/ promote mutualunderstanding

38. 充分利用 make full use of / take advantage of

39. 承受更大的工作压力 suffer from heavier work pressure

40. 保障社会的稳定和繁荣 guarantee the stability and prosperity ofoursociety

41. 更多地强调 put more emphasis on…

42. 适应社会发展 adapt oneself to the development of society

43. 实现梦想 realize one’s dream/ make one’s dream come true

44. 主要理由列举如下 The main reasons are listed as follows:

45. 首先 First， Firstly， In the first place, To begin with

46. 其次 Second, Secondly, In the second place

47. 再次 Besides，In addition, Additionally,Moreover,Furthermore

48. 最后 Finally, Last but not the least, Above all, Lastly,

49. 总而言之 All in all, To sum up, In summary, In a word,

《落花生》在写作方法上的特点《落花生》这篇习作例文在写作上主要的特点是以物喻人。例文通过一家人过花生收获节品尝花生时谈论花生的好处，告诉我们做人要做务实有用的人，不要做只讲体面而对别人没有好处的人。我们可以从下面几点去学习这篇例文。

1．例文在结构上以“落花生”为线索，按“种花生—收花生—尝花生—议花生”顺序写的。收获节时对花生的议论是重点，至于种花生和收花生的情况写得简略。这样组织材料文章脉络清楚、重点突出、主次分明。

2．重点要学习例文以物喻人的写法。在重点段中以谈话的形式，引导孩子们去认识花生的好处和特点。父亲以花生生长的情况与桃子、石榴、苹果作了对比，用来说明花生“虽然不好看，可是很有用”的特点。接着是以花生喻人，阐明了做人的道理。我们在学习借鉴这类文章时，一定要注意借物是为了议论。借物是为了喻人，阐明做人的道理。只有议论部分写清楚了，中心自然就突出了。所以我们说借物是手段，喻人才是目的。

3．采用对比的手法突出要写的事物。例文就是通过与桃子、石榴、苹果的对比，来认识花生本身的特点，然后再用花生说明作人的道理。采用对比的手法使物更鲜明、更便于读者去理解。

写说明文要根据说明对象的特点及写作目的，选用最佳方法。下面是小编整理的说明文写作常用的方法，欢迎阅读。

(1)举例子。举出实际事例来说明事物，使所要说明的事物具体化，以便读者理解，这种说明方法叫举例法。 运用举事例的说明方法说明事物或事理，一要注意例子的代表性，二要注意例子的适量性。

(2)引资料。为了使说明的内容更充实具体，可以引资料说明。引资料的范围很广，可以是经典著作，名家名言，公式定律，典故谚语等。

(3)作比较。说明某些抽象的或者是人们比较陌生的事物，可以用具体的或者大家已经熟悉的事物和它比较，使读者通过比较得到具体而鲜明的印象。事物的特征也往往在比较中显现出来。 在作比较的时候，可以是同类相比，也可以是异类相比，可以对事物进行“横比”，也可以对事物进行“纵比”。

(4)列数据。为了使所要说明的事物具体化，还可以采用列数据的方法，以便读者理解。需要注意的是，引用的数字，一定要准确无误，不准确的数字绝对不能用，即使是估计的数字，也要有可靠的根据，并力求近似。

(5)分类别。将被说明的对象，按照一定的标准划分成不同的类别，一类一类地加以说明，这种说明方法，叫分类别。 分类别是将复杂的事物说清楚的重要方法。

(6)打比方。利用两种不同事物之间的相似之处作比较，以突出事物的性状特点，增强说明的形象性和生动性的说明方法叫做打比方。 说明文中的打比方的说明方法，同修辞格上的比喻是一致的。不同的是，比喻修辞有明喻、暗喻、和借喻，而说明多用明喻和暗喻，借喻则不宜使用。

(7)摹状貌。为了使被说明对象更形象、具体，可以进行状貌摹写，这种说明方法叫摹状貌。

(8)下定义。用简明的语言对某一概念的本质特征作规定性的说明叫下定义。下定义能准确揭示事物的本质，是科技说明文常用的方法。 下定义的时候，可以根据说明的目的需要，从不同的角度考虑。有的着重说明特性，如关于“人”的定义;有的着重说明作用，如关于“肥料”的定义;有的既说明特性又说明作用，如关于“统筹方法”和“应用科学”的定义。

(9)作诠释。从一个侧面，就事物的某一个特点做些解释，这种方法叫诠释法。 定义法和诠释法常采用“某某是什么”的语言形式。形式相同，如何区分呢?一般来说，“是”字两边的话能够互换，就是定义;如果不能互换，就是诠释。 例如，“人是能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物”这句话，改成“能制造工具并使用工具进行劳动的高级动物是人”，意思不变。“雪是在云中形成的一种固态降水物”这句话，如果改为“云中形成的固态降水物是雪”就不成。由此可以辨别，前一句是定义说明，后一句是诠释说明。

(10)画图表。为了把复杂的事物说清楚，还可以采用图表法，来弥补单用文字表达的缺欠，对有些事物解说更直接、更具体。 一篇说明文单用一种说明方法很少，往往综合运用多种说明方法。采用什么说明方法，一方面服从内容的需要，另一方面作者有选择的自由。是采用一种说明方法，还是采用多种说明方法，是采用这种说明方法，还是那种说明方法，可以灵活，不是一成不变的。

小学生如何写好记事作文_小学记叙文写作指导

在记叙文写作中，叙述好一件简单的事，这是一项基本功。练好这个基本功，以后进行复杂的叙事，也就有了基础。德国大作家歌德曾经说过：“一个人只要能把一件事说得很清楚，他也就能把许多事都说得清楚了。”

(1)怎样记叙好一件简单的事

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了：“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。写记叙文，必须考虑哪些先写，哪些后写，安排好记叙的顺序，否则就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。

随着2016年高考大幕的落下，高考语文的评卷工作也顺利的完成了。高考语文作文历年来都是备受关注的对象。特别是今年广东卷的作文以漫画的形式出现，大大超出了广大师生们的预判。题目一出，各类的看法层出不穷，甚至有的语文教师也认为这样的题目考察的层面太肤浅了，没有深度。然而事实上是今年的作文拿分数容易，但能够拿到高分是比较难的。那么今年的作文怎样写才能拿到比较高的分数呢，怎样写才能体现这个时代的高中生写作水平呢?这确实值得深思的问题。高考评卷场，华南师范大学文学院张玉金教授指出，能够诠释这道作文题目应以引申型议论文为佳。引申型议论文为何能比较完美的表达出这道题目的内在要求呢?我个人认为这主要是由其体式决定的。

首先我们重新回顾一下引申型议论文

一、引申型议论文的概念：

引申型议论文是指从一事物出发，抓住一点，生发开去，引出议论，得出结论的议论文。引申型议论文，也可称之为狭义的“读后感”。

二、引申型议论文的与评述型议论文的区别：

评述型议论文：重点是对特定事物的分析、评价，指明优劣得失，分析前因后果，总结经验教训，表明自已或支持，或反对，或赞美，或贬抑的态度。

引申型议论文：它主要不是对特定对象的分析、评价;而只是把材料作为一个引子，借题发挥，“引申”出来某种道理，某种规律，某种主张，再联系实际，展开论述。其重点在“联系实际”。它不是通过“评价”指导实践;而是通过“引申”启发读者。

三、如何写好引申型议论文?

写引申型议论文，关键是要处理好“引”与“申”的关系。具体来说有三点：

1.确立好所“引”材料在文中的地位。

所引材料，首先是“话题的引子”，它是引发出文章论点的依据;同时，它又是一个特殊的论据，它是用来证明论点的“首要”论据。因此，在文章中必须把所“引”材料交待清楚。但有的考生却不注意这一点：不交代或交代不清，使自已的论点失去了依托，同时失去了一个重要论据。

2.掌握“引”材料的技巧。

对题目中的材料不管详略，最好都不要“照抄”，而要根据自已论点的需要，选择、调整，使它和要阐释的中心论点(“申”)对口、衔接。“引”的材料得当，中心论点的表达与论述就能水到渠成。

3.要对所“引”材料进行照应。

材料既是“引子”，又是“特殊”论据，在整个论证过程中，要“时时”提到它，至少在结尾时要回应。如果把材料只作“引子”，到终篇不再提及，文章就没有整体之感。

除此之外，引申型议论文在论证上常使用类比论证，就是“据事类义”，以此证彼，通过打比方来证明论点的方法。

(1)类比法：一般通过讲故事、打比方、引用成语典故等，把属性相同的事物，进行比较，阐明问题，悟出其中的道理来证明论点的正确性。因此，运用类比论证，能把抽象的道理具体化、形象化，深入浅出地说明问题。

(2)运用类比论证时应注意什么?

①根据类比说理的的需要，选择那些最能揭示被说明的道理的类比事物。即用来进行类比说理的事物与被说明的道理之间有相通的东西(共同属性)，就是类比点。

为了具体而通俗的说明一个抽象的道理，在选择类比事例时应遵循以下三个原则：

第一，要选用读者熟悉的事物，来类比说明抽象的道理;

第二，用浅近的道理，来类比说明深奥的道理;

第三，选取具体的事物，来类比说明抽象的道理。

②紧扣类比点。

充分揭示类比事物和所要说明的道理之间的共同属性。

③在类比说理的基础上，还要加以引申和发挥。

这种引申和发挥，是深入说理的需要，是作者阐明写作意图的需要。这样就能使类比说理具有深刻性、现实性、逻辑性。

以下我们结合2016年的高考作文题目以及优秀例文来分析引申型议论文如何写。

阅读下面的漫画材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章(60分)

要求：结合材料的内容和寓意，选好角度，确定立意，明确文体，自拟标题;不要套作，不得抄袭。

首先是“引”材料。

今年的高考题目中需要所“引”的对象不是事，而是漫画，所以“引”材料之前，必须对漫画全面地解读与分析，才能为“引”做准备，这也是与以往的材料作文不同的地方。

分析如下：2016年的高考作文题是漫画作文题目。其中画了两个学生。即甲生和乙学生。第一次考试甲学生得了100分，受到家长的奖赏(从脸上的唇印推知)，甲学生很愉悦;乙学生得了55分，不及格，受到家长的长掴(从其脸上的掌印推知)，乙学生表情痛苦。第二次考试甲学生得了98分，受到家长的掌掴，表情痛苦，乙学生得了61分，刚刚及格，受到了家长奖赏，表情愉悦。这幅漫画包含有4个要素，即人物、分数、面上印记及表情。人物有4个，显性人物两个，即甲学生和乙学生;隐性人物有多个，主要隐性人物是甲学生的家长及教育者和乙学生的家长及教育者。分数有4个：100分、98分、55分、61分。孩子脸上印迹有两种，即唇印和掌印。唇印代表奖赏、肯定、表扬，掌印代表处罚、批评、准备。表情有两种，即愉悦表情、痛苦表情。这些要素之间是有联系的，家长及教育者认为考试分数理想，就奖赏，学生的表情就愉悦;家长认为考试分数不理想，就惩罚，学生的表情就痛苦。纵向来看，有三种变化，即学生分数的变化、脸上印迹的变化、表情的变化。

其次“申”。

“申”就是依托材料发表观点，阐释道理、规律。即对中心论点的阐释与论证。“申”由于考生的认知度不同，可深可浅。2016年高考作文题目要求“结合材料的内容和寓意”，“内容”是指漫画材料直接反映出来的表层意思，“寓意”是指由漫画抽象出来的较为深层的意思。“申”就可以依托其一来阐释、论证观点。

(一)材料的内容

1.学生考试的成绩理想，家长就奖赏

2.学生考试成绩不理想，家长就惩罚

3.学生起点不同家长的期望值不同

4.家长在学业成绩上追求完美

5.家长以肯定或否定的方式对待孩子发生变化的考试分数

6.家长对孩子的考试分数采取简单甚至粗暴的方式

7.家长对待孩子的方式反映了家长对孩子考试分数的态度

8.孩子因家长对待自己的方式而产生了不同的心理

9.其他

(二)材料的寓意

第一方面：漫画反映了社会上对于教育的一些片面的认知与做法---

1.片面追求分数、片面追求升学率

2.社会片面地追求分数，扭曲了教育的本质

3.片面的人才评价观

4.教育者只评价孩子的考试分数。却忽略了孩子的其他方面的素养

5.片面的人才观和人才成长途径

6.其他

第二方面：对漫画中的考生、分数、印迹均可做抽象、引申的理解。考生可以联想到某人类群体，分数可以理解为人的工作成绩乃至团体、社会或国家的进步退步，印迹可以视作一般意义的表扬与批评等。

1.对待进步和退步，我们应该采取理性的方式表达自己的情感、态度

2.起点不同，影响人们对进步、退步的预期

3.事物的起点不同，我们应理性地对待进步和退步

4.现实生活中对人、对事的“奖惩”

5.唯数字奖惩的社会症结

6.对当今社会进步与发展的应持理性态度

7.评价标准具有相对性

8.进步到一定高度，提升空间小;反之提升空间就大

9.是否进步的判断，不是与他人比较得来的，应是与自己比较出来的

10.其他

考生可以从漫画的内容选择角度，也可以从漫画的寓意选择角度，没有高下之分。考生可以谈家长对待孩子成绩的奖惩方式和态度，也可以谈社会对教育的认知和态度，也可以谈对于进步和退步的认知和态度等抽象问题，没有优劣之分。

最后，论证的过程我们结合高考优秀例文来分析

起伏的波浪才更具力量

这一则漫画是一组巧妙的、富有深意的对比。先拿满分后拿98分的孩子先后收获了香吻和一个耳光，而先拿55分后拿61分的孩子则先后得了一个耳光和一个香吻。从这两个孩子的境遇上，我们看到了许多人有意无意抱有的一种心态：追求卓越、积极进取，否认失误和退步，哪怕这个“失误”仅仅两分。(第一段简洁地引材料，明确了角度)

努力进步当然是一件好事。正如漫画中的第二个孩子，他从不及格到达到及格，是一个值得肯定的质变和成就。攀登虽艰辛，而山顶上“一览众山小”的壮阔是徘徊在山脚下的人无法享受的。然而，从100分到98分就是应当受到指责的堕落吗?并不是。98分依然是一个令人艳羡的好成绩，98分和100分同属于优秀水准。从100分到55分才是应当警醒的堕落。(从表层来分析材料，把材料作为论据进一步论述同时使用了类比论证)

依然优秀的第一个孩子被对待的态度落差如此之大，连我亦不禁感到委屈。在竞争日益激烈的大背景下，许多人奉行苛求完美的极端精英教育，向往着“高处不胜寒”。从“虎妈狼爸”，再到“提高一分，横扫千人”的高考标语，人人的神经成了一张绷紧的弓，生怕遭受横飞而来的一记耳光。

可是，有一句亘古朴实的真理是“人无完人，金无足赤。”我们心心念念“直挂云帆济沧海”，却忘了挫折与起伏才是人生的常态。“长江后浪推前浪”的力量，就在这起伏之间。宽大的大海永不会如一潭碧湖般文弱恬静，清浅的水面可以保持平稳，但也失去了承载大舟的能量。

是的，起伏的波浪才是更具力量。没有后退，没有低谷，就没有前进的动力和空间，也就没有厚积薄发的震撼。就像生活在南极冰海的企鹅，想要跃到岸上，并不是在水面上拼命挣扎，而是猛地扎进深水，凭着一股冲劲儿再跃出水面，华丽地落在岸上。第二个孩子就像这只企鹅，在不及格的深潜后获得腾跃的力量。

(由表及里更深层次地论证把成绩的起伏与人生的境遇采用多出类比论证)

而我们，当然应该给第一个孩子以鼓励和支持，不是必须得到满分才是优秀的孩子。他是潮起潮落的大海，是汹涌起伏能淹没一切的波浪。我也相信，他可以在这两分的差距中弥补自己的缺漏，下一次重得满分。

起伏的波浪更具力量，我相信在不完美中，才能更好地突破自己，在退步中，重获前行的勇气和动力。

(最后两段回扣材料，指出应该如何看待成绩，同时也进一步强调应该怎样面对人生，既扣了材料，也重申了主题)

名师点评：这是一篇优秀的考场作文。该生的“规定动作”做得十分到位：紧扣漫画的关键内容与寓意展开写作，符合题意;题好文一半，其所拟题目与其他考生相形，能给人眼前一亮的感觉，即题目有辨异性;起段三言两语，导入简洁，入题快;第二三段分别评述漫画中的分数及其产生此一现象的社会背景，如果说第二段是围绕“点”来展开，那么第三段就是围绕“面”来展开，第四段则是围绕“理”来展开，角度斑斓，内容充实，逻辑(台阶术)严密;第五六七段类比论证、比喻论证，形象生动，文势壮又能以理服人。该生的“自选动作”也同样做得十分到位。比如“立意高远”——作文以哲理立意，难度系数高，区分度自然也高;辩证思维亦颇具特色，论证扎实、理性、稳健;论述相当集中，从题目至结尾绝无蔓笔，析题切题扣题点题，一以贯之。特别值得一提的是，本文所用的“古人说”妥帖，所用的“波浪说”无可辩驳，所用的“企鹅说”新颖、生动、精当、有情趣。此外，该生的“情文并茂”能力、“孟辩素养”(孟子式的辩论素养)也值得点赞。(华南师范大学文学院副教授佘作章)

综上所述，今年高考漫画作文能拿到一定的分数是容易的，但想要拿到比较高的分数还是需要深思慎行的，引申型议论文是比较适合拿高分的一类文体。同时，引申型议论文也能更好地体现高中生的思辨能力，所以高中阶段的作文教学应予以重视。

日记的内容，来源于我们对生活的观察，因此，可以记事，可以写人，可以状物，可以写景，小编收集了小学生日记的写作好方法，欢迎阅读。

小学生日记的形式，常用的有：

1、观察日记。把看到的人物、事物、景物记下来，每次观察最好截取一个侧面，写出特征，反映一个中心。

2、活动日记。记下参观访问活动、学校班级少先队组织的各项活动、家庭活动、同学之间组织的有意义的活动等等，参加一次写一次，一定要抓住要点写。

3、思考日记。(或叫心灵日记、自我教育日记、"道德感悟"日记)把自己对现实生活中的优缺点和心理活动或道德品质成长变化过程摘要记下来。

前两种形式多见于应试，后一种形式要求较高，宜在高年级中有针对性地指导试用。

4、剪贴日记，把自己喜爱的邮票、图画、照片贴在日记本上，并按意图写上来源、目的、意义或说明文字。

5、信息日记。把看到的、听到的、有价值的最新信息记下来。

6、气象日记。把当天的天气、温度、风力、风向和出现的特殊的自然天气现象记下来。

7、台历日记。把周围实实在在发生的重要事情如实简要地记在台历上，少则一句，多则一段话。

8、摘录日记。把看到或读名家语录、格言、座右铭或写人状物的优美诩句摘录下来。

9、学习日记。把课本上学到的、课外书阅读印象较深的心得体会、联想记下来。

10、实验日记。如养花、种向日葵或搞科技小制作，把过程、结果记下来。

一、引导学生自备材料库--想写就写

日记内容可以由学生来确定，也可以由教师有意识地开展一些活动来作为日记内容。无论哪种方式都是为了引导学生留心身边的人和事，养成随时记录的好习惯。当然这种记录是让学生用较为简短精炼的语言去记录主要内容，觉得该记、想记，就写在专门的本子上--美其名曰"想写就写"。如在一节中队活动课时，我组织学生们进行了扳手腕的游戏，他们的积极性很高。我有意选了三组进行比赛：男女生对抗赛(男生个子矮小，女生高大);实力相当的男生(或女生)较量;个子高大和矮小的男生(或女生)对抗赛。这样一来，教室里的热烈气氛可想而知。学生们有看热闹的，有提前猜输赢的，更有呐喊助威的。比赛一结束，我马上让学生们把情景记下来，作为写作素材。结果是学生人人都想写，人人都有可以写的东西。这也为他们以后的写作开了一个好头。

二、写作形式多样

日记的形式很方便，最容易将口头语言变为书面语言，也能进行各种文体训练。但是如果天天写，学生就会厌烦。因此，可以把写作形式改一改：

随文练笔--每学完一篇课文后，让学生动笔写写学后的感受与心得，心里想什么就写什么。当然不能要求太高，几十字、一两百字都可以，只要是自己的真实感受即可。写完之后再同桌交流，然后全班交流，让学生互相学习。

只有让学生敢于表达，善于表达，有话则长，无话则短，这样的练笔才是活生生的，有血有肉的，有价值的。因此，每学完一篇课文，我都要求学生写写，把这看作是一次倾诉的机会。

轮流日记--将班上学生分组，每组四人，其中写作能力强一些的担任组长。组员轮流写日记，每天一人写，写完后由组长组织进行组内交流、评价、再修改、写建议，星期五交到教师处进行审核。每周写作内容由组员共同研究，自己去拟定题目写作。这个日记本就是全组的"共有财产"，小组成员都很珍惜，写作时都很用心。特别是写作差一点的组员写好之后，经过大家评议要是觉得不好，往往还会自觉地重新写，这样就大大地提高了写作兴趣。

小组合作写日记，既能取长补短，又能培养团队精神，大家互相学习，共同提高。这一活动还可以家校互动，请家长参与其中，对孩子既是鼓舞，又是激励。

此外，新的《小学语文教学大纲》对扩大课外阅读量也做了具体规定。在科技迅猛发展的今天，学生可通过报纸、书刊、广播、网络等多种媒体学到许多课本所未有的知识，而这些知识恰好满足了学生好奇、求知的需求。因此，结合这类阅读，可鼓励学生续写、写小评论、编写科幻故事等。作为一名语文教师，首先应该充分利用好语文教材中一些童话、科幻作品及名篇中所蕴含的丰富情感力量，通过具体的课文内容来创设具体情景，从而唤起学生的生活经验和情感体验，激发学生的想象力。可以针对课文的空白处进行补写，如《小珊迪》一课，补写"小珊迪被马车撞了回到家的情景";也可以根据故事情节续写，如学完《坐井观天》后续写"青蛙从井里跳了出来……";也可以根据古诗意境扩写，如学习《送孟浩然之广陵》时，可让学生扩写。

创造潜力，人人都有，关键看教师如何认识、发掘。要以积极的态度去了解学生的思维特点、认知现状、情感体验，积极创设环境，营造氛围，热情地鼓励学生的"表达"和"表现"。切忌把创新思维定位太高，对于小学生习作来说，能逐步把"再现型"水平提高到"表现型"水平，把他们自己的见闻、感受和想象写出来，内容具体，感情真实就可以了。所以，应根据不同的习作确立相关的创新思维训练目标，在习作教学中不断发现、鼓励学生的创新发现，将会极大地激发学生的"表现"热情，为习作创新奠定良好的基础。

三、多种形式的批改评价

评价是日记训练过程中的一个很重要的环节，它是激发和维持学生写日记积极性的一个主要因素。评价要注意做到以下两点：

一是评价要改变那种传统的"精批细改"、教师"一评定音"的方式。要采取多种形式的评价方式，悉心呵护学生的每一丝创新、发现。

二是习作批改评价应改变以往那种面面俱到的方法，针对习作训练的重点选一两个部分做重点评价或专题评价。如学了《人物描写》后练习习作，就可重点截取文中人物描写的句子做专题评价。

除教师积极参与评价外，还可激励学生结合习作要求进行自我评价和相互评价。要及时掌握学生写作情况，必要时给予个别指导。可把精彩的习作和普通的习作放在一起，让学生对比评价;也可交换日记，让学生间相互评价。此外，鼓励学生把习作带回去，让家长参与评价，掌握学生习作的情况。帮助学生扬长避短，更会促进学生写作的兴趣。

在这种多形式的评价中，都要力戒"评多导少""优少病多"的弊端，注重鼓励和引导，使学生在每一次评价中受益，提高表达、评价能力，从而使写作能力不断发展。

日记给学生带来巨大的好处，沟通了师生的心灵，让学生在其中快乐的成长，享受写作的乐趣。让我们用真情悉心浇灌创新的幼芽，用爱心和学生一起聆听"花开的声音"，期待那最美的时刻--让蛹破蝶飞。

我校九年级学生，有80%完全不会写作文，即除了“My name is XXX.”“I will. do，” 一个正确的句子都写不出来，剩下的5%也在以下方面存在一些常见的错误：

1、没有理解英语的基本句子成分是“主语”+“谓语”

学生经常出现主语跟谓语不一致，包括句子的谓语用得不恰当，谓语用词跟主语不搭配，一个句子没有主语，或多个句子杂在一起。

比如：学生想说“我母亲总是不让我看电视”，写出来的是“my mother always not be allowed I watch TV.”根本就是直接从汉语逐字翻译成英文的。

出现这样的问题，显然是由于句子的基本结构没有弄清楚。看来在今后教学中还要继续强调，并配合造例句练习。

2、动词短语搭配不准确

比如：“I’m not allowed watch TV.”正确的短语“被允许做某事”应该是“be allowed to do…”。

3、丛句语序和连接词问题

很不理解，为什么强调了那么多次，学生在写作文时，丛句语序还会写错？后者连接词和引导词也老师出错。对于连接词，我在讲的时候也感觉到学生没有理解。我讲解的方法就是把课文里面的丛句拿出来分析其语序和联系词，然后再讲相关语法点，最后举例子让学生造句。语序问题，我还会在将来碰到一次强调一次，相信会有效果。但是联系词我就不知道该怎么让孩子听懂了。

比如：“I don’t know that what should I do”“Could you please tell me should I do?”正确的句子应该是“I don’t know what I should do.”“ Could you please tell me what I should do?”.

以上这些问题让我对如何增强学生作文表达能力有了一个不全面的思考。我觉得，提高学生作文能力必须从七年级入手（小学重点在听说，只需知道what 和 how,不需求甚解；到中学阶段就必须知道why了）。

4、句子使用的句型单一

例如；在一次模拟考试当中英语的考试题目就是如果我当选了班长我会怎么做，做哪些事情，九年级五班的英语课代表张雅就一直用一个句型来写“I will do”，虽然全文当中没有一个错误，但因为句型单一所以值得8分，因此在老师教课的过程中还要不断的给学生讲 作文序加以变换句型且需对语句加以润色。

针对以上问题我以后在讲课文和精读篇阅读理解试题时，要注意以下两点：

1、利用课文逐句帮助学生分析理解英文句子的基本结构，即“主语+谓语”；

2、要求学生把有用的动词短语、名词短语以及插入语记牢记清楚。

3、每单元的语言目标，一定要理解并记忆。

4、是学生学会句子的变换使用，有必要时做些句型转换练习。

畅想型作文就是假设一种情景，作者凭想象来完成的作文。以下是小编搜索整理一篇畅想型作文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读!

一、要有具体而细致的描述。

具体而细致的描述，是作文形象生动的必要条件。抽象笼统，没有具体事例，就不可能吸引读者。如写《假如我是济公》，应集中写好两三件具体事例，可有些同学每段第一句都是“假如我的济公”，接下去就是我将如何如何。每段三五句，一共写了十来段，都是干巴巴的条条，内容不实在，缺少形象性。

二、要有一个明确的主题。

畅想型作文有着极为广泛的选材天地，但这并不是说它可以想到什么写什么，它和其他类型的作文一样，也要有一个明确的主题，所选的材料必须围绕这个主题。《假如我是济公》这篇作文，它的主题就应是像济公那样抑强扶弱、惩恶扬善，选择的材料就要能体现这一点。但有些同学写变成济公后，刻苦钻研科学，获得了国家科技奖，这就游离了主题。

三、入题要快。

写这类作文，最好直接从场面和情节入手，摒弃一切套话。但有些同学的作文开场白太多，慢吞吞地说了一大堆多余的话，如在写《愚公与智叟的第二次会面》时，什么“愚公移山是一个典故”，“这个典故有深刻的意义”，等等，先绕了几个圈子，然后再入题，罗里罗嗦，很不简洁。

四、要有现实依据。

畅想型作文表达的大都是作者的理想，理想是现实的折光，它是经过努力可以达到或能够实现的。有位同学写《假如我是济公》，说济公去看望生病的A的老师，宝扇一扇，使低矮的小屋马上变成了大房子，而且宽敞明亮、阳光充足。这是建立在现实基础上的，因为给教师建造这样的房子是可以成为现实的。如果换成这样：A老师住在山洞里，阴暗潮湿，济公一扇，立即变成一幢金碧辉煌的宫殿，A老师正在宫殿里批改作业，这就不切合实际了。

畅想型作文的内容往往是理想的生活，其中充满着真善美，也往往是作者激情的抒发。这样，最好用热情洋溢、欢快活泼的文笔来写。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，小编收集了小升初作文叙事文具体写作方法，欢迎阅读。

在会写记叙文之前我们首先要学会怎么去记叙好一件简单的事情

一、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。

如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了;“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

二、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在记叙文六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

三、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。那么我们要怎么写才能让文章条理清楚呢

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

一、句式多变，词汇丰富。

鉴于这部分的写作要求和难度，不论是写书信还是编故事，由于100词的字数要求，考生必须要学会用具体的，多样化的语句来描写某样东西或某件事情。有的学生从头至尾都用"Thereis"的句式，而且重复多遍，看来单调乏味，很难得高分。我们不妨用主动和被动句式、各种不同的从句、动词不定式、强调句、虚拟语气等等，当然我们要写的句式必须是自己熟悉的，有把握的。

词汇量的大小影响写作成绩。试想你形容餐馆good，食品good，氛围good，那也太无聊了，我们平时就积累一些词汇，比如餐馆cleanandtidy，食品niceandtasty，氛围friendlyandpleasant等等，而不至于到考试时言之无物。

二、问题都答，加上连词。

如果第二单元你要给笔友写一份回信，信中有这么一个问题Haveyougotafavoriterestaurant?Tellmeaboutthefoodandwhatyoulikeabouttherestaurant。这个问题看似非常简单，但如果你就回答一句Ihavegotmyfavoriterestaurant.可以，但如果你不学会怎么扩展这个话题，那一封信中根本就写不了上百个单词。因此，学会拓展话题这一点在这部分中尤为重要，如你可以写餐馆的名字、位置、特色等等。

如果你选择编故事也很好。我们PET考生大多是青少年，正是想象力非常丰富的时候，很适合去编故事。但在书写的过程中，一定要注意尽量用自己有把握的语言来表达和描述。此外，既然是故事，就应该把事情发生的时间、地点、人物、过程以及结果都完整地表述出来。因此，我们在平时就把日常生活中所发生的有意义的小事儿用英文记录下来，日积月累你会发现，你的书写素材会越来越多，这种考试对你来说，将会是"apieceofcake"。

另外注意适当使用一些关联词，如and,but,so,if，使行文更加流畅。

三、平时勤练，克服畏惧。

因为该部分要求比较高，建议考生平时可以多做这样的书写练习。在学而思PET，我们会练习四五篇大作文，希望同学们平时就认真对待，描写到位，在老师的指导下，逐步明白自己的弱项在哪里，进而逐渐消除无话可写的心理恐惧，并提高写作水平。

不少人想写小说，但找不对路子，绞尽脑汁也写不出来。 还有一些人动辄万把字，但一篇也发表不出去。学习微型小说对创作来说是一条“终南捷径”。阿·托尔斯泰(苏)说：“小小说， 这是训练作家最好的学校。”这种作用出自于微型小说自身。 微型小说优越简便，篇幅短，费时少，易掌握，可多写，发表园地多。较快地发表一篇千字小说，对初学者的鼓舞作用是可想而知的。 初学者避免步入只是想用鸿篇巨制来一鸣惊人的歧途，以此为起点， 向着远大目标走去。

微型小说，应当说是一种新型文体。 我国文坛八十年代兴起微型小说。一是读者多。读者面广，各阶层都有。二是作者多。业余作者遍及全国，著名作家也大都试作，如王蒙、丛维熙、冯骥才等。三是园地多。各级各类报纸刊物大都发表微型小说， 各种征文竞赛活动层出不穷。四是文学理论界开展了讨论，同时引起国外文学界的关注。微型小说兴起的原因首先是时代需要。 现代化建设加快了生活节奏，读者要求阅读短文，这就出现相应的文学形式。 其次是文学自身发展的需要。短篇小说越写越长，作为对“长”的针砭，出现开拓新文学领域的“微型小说热”。 微型小说终于成为文学理论及写作理论开始涉及的新型文学体裁。不过， 微型小说在古代已有雏形。如《战国策》中的一些片断，如魏晋志人小品和明清笔记小说。特别是《聊斋志异》，共490多篇，最长的4千多字，500字以下140多篇。但其艺术价值却使蒲松龄与曹雪芹、施耐庵等一起彪炳史册。我国二三十年代曾经明确提倡。外国微型小说发展很快。莫泊桑、契诃夫的小说中就有一些微型小说。 美国作家欧·享利的微型小说名气较大。日本作家星·新一写了一千多篇， 被称为“一分钟小说大师”。澳大利亚、俄罗斯等国也都大量发表微型小说。微型小说风行世界，方兴未艾。

微型小说生命力旺盛，命名杂出，需要确定名称。常见的有超短篇小说、极短篇小说、一分钟小说、袖珍小说、 微信息小说等，有的在逻辑上仍属短篇小说，有的只是强调阅读时间，有的不规范。目前通行的是小小说和微型小说。但小小说名称过于通俗，而微型小说名称却与长、中、短篇小说配称， 有利于文学体裁名称的标准化。

微型小说是一种通过对细节、场面的描写， 以小见大地表现人物及反映社会生活的文学体裁。它的特点和要求如下：

(一)以微知著，以近知远。明显特点是“小”，字数千字左右，人物少，情节简单。但要小而精，微而妙，以少胜多， 并成为社会某一方面的缩影，以微观反映宏观。现实感强，迅速轻便，充满生活气息，但要写出艺术境界的“远”，使人联类无穷。

(二)博采众长，不拘一格。 微型小说广泛吸取其它文章和艺术体裁的长处，可以称为“模糊小说”。①吸收新闻长处， 及时敏锐地反映社会生活，适合报纸选载。②吸收影视特长， 在同一时间结构起一组生活画面。如《!—?》，写在深夜城市中，A司机恶作剧地长时间按喇叭，B将军被惊醒，C作家打断思路，D病孩被折磨……③吸收寓言特长，结尾道出哲理。如《杰克和水手》。 ④吸收小品特长，具有较强的讽刺性。⑤吸收散文特长，多采用第一人称， 淡化情节，体现一种思想寄托和艺术追求。如《永远的蝴蝶》。 微型小说还吸收了诗歌、论文、神话、科幻故事等特长， 是作者进行艺术探索的广阔天地。

(三)取材精确，镜头小说。 短篇小说写横断面如《孔乙己》，尽管只有二千来字，但写出了一个社会横断面， 除代表旧时代乡村知识分子阶层的孔乙己外，还有丁举人、酒店老板、 学徒和看客等各阶层人物，孔乙己坎坷的命运也得到反映。微型小说写的是面上的一点，这个点是运动展开的，可以称作影视中的“镜头”。 如《一件小事》，写的是一件小事，一个场面，三个人物。 镜头在微型小说中的组成有三种。一是生活一镜头，即一个场面。二是组合镜头，以一个场面为背景，接连叠印多个局部镜头。 三是“闪回”镜头，用眼前场面带出以前的镜头。 一般短篇小说中的倒叙和补叙，在微型小说中要成为瞬间镜头的描写和串连，以免冗长叙述和说明。

(四)写特殊点，重情绪化。微型小说人物描写的特点是， 写主要人物的性格的某一侧面，或写主要人物的情绪心态。 ①一般来说应刻划出鲜明性格，具体方法是写性格的闪光点。 一是集中一点，突出强调。如《瞎说》，抓住一个教师胆小逢迎这一点。此人见人就笑，“文革”后更善于重复别人的话并连称“对对”。 在一次报告会上，劳模对他谦称“我那是瞎说”，他应声附和：“对对， 瞎说，瞎说!”引起人们惊诧，他也惊出一身冷汗。二是勾勒轮廓，重在神似。即白描手法，以叙代描，写人物内在和外在的主要特点。三是显微放大，夸而不诬。抓住人物特殊点进行夸张， 甚至涂上荒诞色彩，只要对准生活的焦点和本质都是可以的。 如王蒙的《雄辩证》，医生说“请坐”，病人却说“为什么要坐呢?难道你要剥夺我的不坐权嘛”，如是等等。对“文革”中盛行的强辞夺理、 咄咄逼人的“病症”进行了艺术的夸张。 契诃夫的《一个小公务员的死》也是这样。②注重情绪化描写。这是微型小说创作的一个趋向， 反映了西方现代派手法的影响。不重视性格刻划的传统写法，避免明晰性。人物往往只用“他”、“她”等代词称呼， 写出来也是缥缈的影子，大都是生活中的平常人。情绪气氛笼罩全篇， 有意识地作深层意识的剖析和细微感觉的刻划，产生一种朦胧而又深刻的意境。如《永远的蝴蝶》，没有描写事件过程，反复地写怀恋之情，刻划细微感觉和幻觉，蕴含着生死、爱情的永恒哲理意味。 情绪心态要尽量带有普遍性。如《那团云雾》， “他”游黄山买了高价茶叶便败了游兴，即使认识到这种心理的低下也无法快乐， 只有在看到同伴也吃了亏时才莫名欢悦，峰顶那团云雾都不见了。 这种情绪心态概括了人们惯熟而又可笑的“阿Q精神”，揭示出人类的劣根性。

对待微型小说的特点及技巧，一要弄通掌握， 争取在理论指导下站在较高起点上进行实践，二要灵活运用，甚至不去联系，让它们在潜意识中随时起到作用。还可以摹仿。照搬形式、技巧， 发扬精华，受到感应，并力求创新，出自己意。上述特点， 特别是“博采众长”中已经具备了微型小说的一些结构要求。以下再列出一种模式，供初学者学习。

模式如下：

【开头】要使人“一见钟情”。方式有三种：

▲造成悬念，引起兴趣。如《那团云雾》，开头就写不知怎的没了游兴，连山顶上也罩上一团云雾。

▲开门见山，进入情节。往往开头就是人物对话。

▲含蓄蕴藉，曲径通幽。往往描写景物， 烘托铺垫并有照应和伏笔。

【中间】结构主要有三种基本类型：

▲曲折生致式。

①单线曲折，一波三折。如王任叔的《河豚子》，写一农民在二三十年代的社会背景中，因穷困而自杀的过程：弄回毒鱼， 却看到孩子们兴高采烈；怕见惨象而出外， 回来后却见妻儿欢笑等待；吃后等死，却因鱼失去毒性，死不成仍要受苦。

②双线交叉，内在联系。一人两事，或两人一事；可以是两条明线，也可一明一暗，互为陪衬。如《小星的暑假日记》， 父亲编造假材料，儿子编写假日记。父亲打骂儿子后， 再要写材料时只好苦笑。

③反复回环，同中见异。如《奇妙的循环不等式》，车上只有一个空位，售票员不让老太太坐，却让“首长”坐。 司机上车后赶开“首长”请经理坐，经理的丈母娘正是老太太。 又如《他们都是瞎子》，写一对青年热恋、结婚、离婚时都看见一对瞎子相搀相扶。

④前后对比，双峰对峙。 如《变化》写一个业余作者先后发表两篇稿件后，单位领导不同的态度。

⑤欲扬先抑，欲抑先扬。前者，“扬”是主体， 却先在“抑”上着笔，突然一转归于“扬”。后者相反。这样，产生了情节发展的意外性，加强了相反相成的艺术效果。

▲重旨复意式。微型小说应以小暗示大，达到意义的升华；要讲象外之旨，言外之意，引起读者想象。主要采用：①象征。 用具体物象寓示概念或另一形象，但只起结构作用， 不是象在诗歌中着力描写的中心形象那样。如《口》， 写一官复原职的领导用别人送的打下猎物时，得知走后门的“口”也对准了他。 ②双关。如《向不通》， 写大学生向不通十年勤恳工作反不如工作差的升得上去，因而“想不通”。③比喻。如《“炮”炸宴席》， 写小孙子在酒宴上放炮仗捣乱， 又在爷爷不满新经理四十来岁年纪轻时放“炮”：“你不是十八岁就当县长!爸爸三十出头就当厂长了! ”④省略。这是一种具象化的空白。如《落果》， 老门卫退休后门口枣树上果子不熟就被打光，他写信给厂长：“连几十张馋嘴都管不住，还管厂。”接着省略了厂长感奋、整顿厂风的情节， 而写第二年老师傅收到一包红枣。

▲采用其它文体和艺术体裁的特长。

【结尾】结尾宜巧，要“回眸一笑”。主要有三种：

▲画龙点睛，首尾呼应。如《那团云雾》，开头败了游兴，峰顶似乎有团云雾，结尾那团云雾也不见了。

▲戛然而止，含蓄隽永。如二百来字的《书法家》，局长在书法展览会上应邀不过写了两个拿手的好字是“同意”， 面对惊叹和要求只好无奈地说：“能写好的数这两个字……”这样结尾， 韵味无穷，艺术容量很大。

以上两种结尾方法只能撩起读者短暂的激动，最佳结尾是：

▲出人意外，扣人心弦。即“欧·享利式结尾”，其特点是“巧”。整个布局为结尾服务，读者以为情节东向演进， 结果却西向而行，抖包袱，亮底牌。这种结尾， 打破了情节发展惯用的结构手法，给人以新奇感，深化了主题，增加了容量。大家熟知的《麦琪的礼物》就是这样，一对穷困夫妻为在节日时互送礼物而煞费苦心，最后礼物拿出来却没用：一个卖掉金表为妻子买了梳子， 一个剪掉长发为丈夫买了根表链。又如澳大利亚的《窗》，靠窗的病人每天为角落病人描述窗外美景，为苍白的生活增光添彩。 但是角落病人却见死不救，图谋到了靠窗的好位置，抬头望见窗外只是一堵高墙。

下面举出一篇微型小说并加简要评论。

戴旧草帽的赶集人

数不清的草帽在人流中浮动，方圆几百里的庄稼人来赶关林会呢。他头上也捂着一顶旧草帽。

啥货物都不入他眼窝头。

旧草帽下一双刚强的眼睛倏地一亮：书摊！书案后， 在录音机播放的流行歌曲的伴唱下，一个戴太阳帽的小伙子正在对同事的连衣裙赞不绝口……“旧草帽”游过去了。

静看了一会，旧草帽下伸出一双粗糙的手：“同志， 把那本又厚又大的书搬来，叫俺瞅瞅。”

“这书，”戴太阳帽的小伙子撇撇嘴，“咱俩都下辈子看吧。”

他和善地但却执拗地央求：“拿来俺看！”

“去去去，你买得起？翻旧了谁要！”小伙子发了脾气， 扭头对着连衣裙挤眼嘻笑：“老粗，书名都叫不出来。 ”人圈里几个戴草帽的人发话了：“丢不了你的书。别看乡下人衣裳烂， 挣票子比谁少不了！”

旁边一个戴眼镜的买书人过意不去， 忙向“旧草帽”解释说这书是精装缩印本《辞海》……结论是对农民不大实用。

“旧草帽”愣怔了一会儿，黑红的脸上好不是意思呀。 他扭身就走，想快点溶化到人海里去。人群中那几个戴草帽的，神情也都是怅然若失。

“旧草帽”停住了， 对着集市上漂浮的人流中的一顶顶草帽出神……

“旧草帽”转回来了。手伸到头顶“啪”地扣紧帽子，用劲挤到书摊前，一扬手说：“买！大不过甩俩猪娃钱罢了。俺家供着个中学生哩。”小伙子打鼻眼里哼了一声。

人圈里那几顶草帽活跃了， 又纷纷声援：“拿书喽！书不是让人买嘛？！”一叠票子打腰间刷地抽出，舒展开来“索索”地响着，亮在大众面前。

小伙子惊奇地斜视着“旧草帽”， 只好也赌气地搬出《辞海》来，“通”一声砸在书案上：“二十多块哩！”

他并不立即观赏， 反倒从头上摘下草帽悠悠地扇着风儿：“二百多块咱也出得起。烦你再给咱取书。往年赶集俺发愁的是买不下红薯片顶饥，现今咱家挣几千块正没处花， 正琢磨着给乡邻们办件啥好事，这会才悟出来：俺办它个小图书馆。大老粗该文明文明了。戴眼镜这先生，请帮俺挑一挑。……只要政策和庄稼人对路，咱将来赶集说不了买……买架飞机上天堂哩。哈哈哈……”

戴草帽的人都笑了，四周的人也都笑了。

戴太阳帽的小伙子一愣，刹那间眼珠儿灵动异常， “咔”地关了录音机，招呼同伴：“大买卖！快给老伯取书！”

……道了声“谢谢”，“旧草帽”挺起胸膛，抱起一摞子书籍，渐渐地溶入蘑菇一样多的草帽的洪流中去了……

这篇小说通过一个集会上农民买书的细节及场面的描写， 以小见大地反映了八十年代初农村逐渐富裕起来并产生精神文化追求的社会生活主流。小说人物描写的特点是抓住人物性格的一点即刚强，同时采用白描手法和借代修辞。情节曲折生致。生活气息强，富于概括力。语言独特，在文语句式中使用了北方农村生活化的口语。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

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