英语写作段落扩展的方法(汇集20篇)

审题是作文的关键，题目清楚了，就会写得切题，就可以不走或少走弯路。小编收集了如何写好一篇作文，欢迎阅读。

一、把握中心，审清题意对作文来说，第一步就是审题。

审题是作文的关键，题目清楚了，就会写得切题，就可以不走或少走弯路。否则，拿到题目草率动笔，急于写作，还没有搞清楚题意就信马由缰，一发而不可收拾，写跑了题还不知道原因呢。怎样审题呢?拿到题目后要仔细阅读，确定题目的重点和中心，把握题目的深层含义。所谓重点和中心，往往要求同学们认真分析题目的每一个字词，抓住重点词语，也就是“题眼”。申清题意，从而确定作文的内容和重点。审题时，还要搞清文章要写的范围和角度，不按规定的范围写就会跑题。总之，审题的关键是确定重点，把握范围角度，掌握了这两点，就能打开思路，迈出写作的第一步。

二、命题作文的定体每一篇作文是由内容和形式的结合，体裁是作文表现形式。

所谓定体，就是拿到试题后，弄清楚试题要求写成什么文体。小学生主要学习的是记叙文、说明文、议论文，文体表现主题的方式不同，写作的方法就有很大的差异。从题目的文字来定体，一般来说题目中有“记”字的多为记叙文，如《记一件有意义的活动》《记我的一位朋友》等，还有不太明显的，如“访”“观”等，题目中有“论”“说”“谈”“议”“驳”等字的是议论文，如《谈实事求是》《小议人生价值》等。说明文比较明显，如《水的用途》等，一看就是说明文。从题目的范围来定体。在题目中，对要求写某个时间里的人和事，那是记叙文，如《我的星期天》《劳动的一天》等。在题目中有地域空间范围，要求考生写中国范围内发生的事情和人物，那也是记叙文，如《我在北京的日子》《春到校园》等。从题目要求的对象和内容来定体。《我和我的老师》一看就明白，写作对象是“我”和“老师”，这是要求写人的;《实验成功》这是写事的;《故乡的山》这是写景的。这都是要求写成记叙文。而《树叶的作用》写作内容是事理;《我的钢笔》写作对象是实物，应当写成说明文。文体确定了，思考时就会有明确的目标了。如果题目是写记叙文，就立即从写人记事两方面思考，把主题表现出来。如果是说明文，就从说明事物特性状态、功能等方面思考，如何揭示事物的本质和特性。如果是议论文，就从建立论点、寻找论据上下手，思考论证的方法。只有确定了文体，就可以确定文章的写作方向，同学们一定不可轻视它啊!

三、命题作文的立意立意就是确定文章的主题，也就是我们平时说的确定文章的中心思想。

主题是文章的灵魂，是贯穿文章的主线，文章的选材、结构、语言表达都受主题的约束，围绕着主题，为主题服务。立意过程就是写作时经过审题来确定文章应表达的基本意思。主题并不是凭空而来的，也不是每个人头脑中固有的，它是学生对社会生活的提炼与概括，来自社会实践，是学生对客观事物的认识。因此，确定主题时，一定要从同学们的生活经验、社会实践出发，选择具有社会意义的角度去立意。立意不明确，不合题目要求，那就偏离了主题(跑题)，或者写到中间发现不对，既浪费了时间，又由于慌乱，影响写作质量。所以，立意是写作前的总体设计，它是对作文成败起着关键作用。立意一般从这样两方面着手努力：

1.首先要新：要使文章立意新颖，就必须经过认真分析，找出事物的本质，抓住事物的特点。

2.立意要正确、鲜明、深刻。要做到立意深刻，就要把反映的对象所蕴藏的本质挖掘出来。

四、命题作文的选材作文最主要的内容就是题材，也就是一般同学们常说的写作材料。

文章的立意要以材料为依据，主题思想的表达也要靠每人材料来完成。一篇文章的主题确立后，要想写好，就必须认真选择材料。命题作文的选材应从以下几个角度着手：

1.要选自己熟悉的材料。只有自己熟悉才认识得清，也才最能说透。命题一般考虑到每个学生都有话可说，有时可叙，有理可议，有情可抒，有感而发，命题范围往往不会超越同学们的生活圈子。同学们在选材上一定要沉着、镇定，不要舍近求远。就从自己身边发生的事中找素材，只有自己最熟悉繁荣人和事，写起来才真实、亲切，能写出特色。

2.要选择具有典型意义的材料。典型意义的材料就是那些最有代表性、最能揭示事物本质的材料。这种材料最有说服力，在文章中起决定作用。

3.要选择新鲜的材料：一篇文章中有无新鲜材料就可以看出它的立意是否新颖。材料的选择，说到底只有一个准则，那就是一切为文章的中心服务，要选择那些最有代表性、说服力，最能突出中心的东西来写。切记要符合文章题目的要求，要紧扣文章所表达的中心。与中心关系紧密的多选，与中心关系不大的少选或不选。

五、命题作文的结构结构就是文章的内容构造。

文章的结构因体裁的不同而形式不同。记叙文以写人记事为主，常用事物发展的时间顺序、空间顺序、事物的逻辑顺序来结构文章;说明文一般要求把事物的形状、构造、特点和功用等方面说清楚，常采用按事物结构顺序、说明对象的逻辑顺序、事物发展进程来结构文章;议论文通常是按照提出问题、分析问题、解决问题的顺序结构文章。不管什么文体，也不管采用哪种方式来结构，都必须符合以下要求：

1.结构严谨：应根据文章主题的需要，把开头、结尾、层次段落、过渡、照应、详略安排好。还应该做到“意在笔先”，动笔之前，先要进行总体规划、全面设计、紧扣主题选好材料，安排好层次，打好腹稿。希望同学们养成打腹稿和列提纲的好习惯，以便能合理安排文章的结构。

2.结构自然：每一件事物都有前因后果，有它的发生、发展和结局的过程。文章应遵循这些客观事物的规律，正确反映客观事物的规律，顺理成章。

3.结构完整：文章要有头有尾有主体，每一部分都不可缺少，并且每部分要匀称，既不能虎头蛇尾，也不能头尾大，而主体小，要成比例。这就要同学们在布局谋篇时应当充分意识到文章的整体性。在立意后要考虑好怎样开头，如何结尾。文章主体部分划为几个层次，这些都在全文中占多大比例，搞清楚会再下笔。文章的结构对于写好作文至关重要。人们常说主题是文章的灵魂，材料是文章的血肉，而结构则是文章的骨架。文章有了匀称的骨架，才可以使内容充分体现，主题思想完美地表达。、

第一种方法

1首先是要在纸张正上方中间写上醒目一点的标题，一般直接写保证书就可以了，但是如果涉及专门类别的保证书那还要加上一些前缀，多数出现在专业工作领域上，比如企业工厂一般都是写生产安全保证书，卫生食品部门则是会写卫生安全保证书等等，学生则有可能写学习保证书。

2正文开始前有个抬头，顶格写上对保证书送达方的称呼，一般送达方为保证人的上级、服务方、或者长辈，所以如果是写给个人，在称呼上最好带点尊敬，最好能带上他的专业称谓，比如某某老师某某先生/小姐等等，然后在称谓后面加上冒号。

3正文开始要空两格，一般正文写清楚两点就可以了，第一点就是写保证书的原因是什么，第二点就是你要做保证的具体事项、具体行为、具体时间等等，比方说一位学生写保证书，第一点，写的原因是他在班级里打伤了同学，第二点，他保证在该学校读书期间不会和班级里的同学打架，保证认真学习等等，这样保证书的正文主要内容就齐了。

4在保证书的结尾最好再一次强调一下实现保证目标的决心，可以写上以上保证绝对做到等话，然后再用此致敬礼等礼貌用语结束正文，如果是写给不固定的服务对象的保证书，可以在结尾处写上希望用户监督批评等话。

5最后是落款，落款一般都是写在保证书的右下方的，署上保证人单位的全称(一定要写全称，表示对送达方的尊重)或者个人的完整姓名，并署上发文的日期。

其他方法

1另外还有一种保证书，就是常见的使用、维护、处理某些东西的保证书，这个一般只需要写上使用、维护、处理者以及物品的基本信息，再写上保证正确使用、维护、处理该物品即可，不需要其他内容。

2另外还有一种保证书其实就相当于说明书，是将某产品或者某服务的具体内容进行详细说明，有些可能再在后面加上一句以上信息保证属实，一般常见某些物品鉴定。

单位领导：

您们好!

我在****店外场工作有将近一年的时间了。现担任****店外场副组长。自从从事这项工作后，我学到了不少东西，为了今后的工作做的更好，能够及时的得到领导和同志们的帮助。我在今后的工作中保证做到以下几项。

第一，要自觉学习业务，学习上面的有关精神，时刻不忘自己工作和思想上觉悟的提高。

第二，要时刻不忘自己的责任，要尽职尽责的做好工作，要做到在岗一分钟，做好六十秒。

第四，要尊重领导，团结同事，努力创造一个团结和睦的集体。

第四，自愿遵守**市**区**娱乐有限公司制订的各项规章制度。

第五，做到对于公司专业知识工作流程熟悉掌握，熟悉操作。

第六，做好自己本职工作，管理好自己区域，积极完成各项上级分配下来的工作。

第七，对待顾客要求自己与员工做到不说不尊重之语 不说不友好之语 不说不耐烦之语 不说不客气之语。

第八，树立强烈的服务意识，富有进取和创新精神。

各位领导同事，以上是我的保证书，请大家监督我。

此致

保证人：

一、例证法

例证法是用相应的、确凿的事例作依据、直接证明所持论点的论证方法。例如《反对党八股》中，为证明“无的放矢，不看对象”这一论点，举了延安城墙上标语中把“工人”的“工”写成了“互”的实例。《将革命进行到底》中为论证人民解放战争在1949年7月至12月间所发生的一个极有利于我方的“根本变化”，列举我人民解放军歼灭党兵力的一系列数字，运用此法，应注意所举事例的确凿性和代表性，以保证论断的科学性。

二、引证法

引证法是引用马克思主义经典作家、有关学科权威性理论家的有关言论、某理论体系中无须论证的公理、已被确认的原理、以及流传久远而素被公认为是真理的格言与谚语等，来做论据以进行论证的方法。它实际是理论论证的一种形式，它和一般的理论论证的区别只是在于它引用的是有出处的现成的话。例如《人民的愿望，人民的力量》《人民日报》(1978年11月16日)一文中，在阐发1976年清明节前后出现于北京天安门广场和全国许多城市的亿万人民群众沉痛悼念周恩来同志、愤怒声讨“江青反革命集团”的伟大革命运动的意义和实质时，引用了恩格斯这样一段论述：“应当注意的，与其说是个别人的、即使是非常杰出的人物的动机，不如说是整个阶级行动起来的动机;而且也不是短暂的爆发和转瞬即逝的火花，而是持久的、引起伟大历史变迁的行动(《路德维希·费尔巴哈和德国古典哲学的终结》，《马克思恩格斯选集》第四卷，人民出版社1972年版，第245页)。在这里的论证方法就是引证法，文章以这样的经典性的论述来进行阐发，几乎无需借助其他说明和发挥，就已经取得了极其深刻、极为雄辩的论证效果。此论证方法虽具有独特效用，但却不可滥用，只有在非常必要的关键处才应运用;而且在运用时必须注意以下三点：

1、所引用的话必须是被公认的真理，如非真理，则不能起到论据作用，整个论证就失败而不成其为论证;

2、所引用的话在原著作中得出此结论的前提条件，必须和引用文章使用此结论的前提条件一致，否则，引用就成为一种诡辩，一种实用主义，而非科学的论证;

3、要从论证实际需要出发，引证比其他论证方法简便、明确而更有说服力时才使用。一篇文章中不可引证过多，要坚决反对炫耀博学而滥用引证的不良文风。

三、对比法

对比法是运用两个类别相同而有关方面又不相同的事物的比较，从其相异点上揭示各自的是非、真伪、善恶、美丑，从而达到证明所持论点的论证方法。例如毛主席的《改造我们的学习》中，为说明学习应采取什么样的态度，将“主观主义的态度”与“马克思列宁主义的态度”各自的表现、实质及其截然不同的结果作了对比，从对比中得出了应当反对主观主义的态度，采取马克思主义的态度的结论。这一论证使用的即对比法。运用此法，须注意所选择的用以进行对比的例子必须典型。可比点集中、确当、行文上也应注意对其对比事物的叙述方式有相对应的特点，以期取得更好的论证效果。

四、类比法

类比法是运用与论证对象具有同类性质、作用的另一对象与论证对象比较，从其已知的另一对象的有关结论中得出所要论证对象的结论的写法。例如，恩格斯《在马克思墓前的讲话》中的“正象达尔文发现有机界的发展规律一样，马克思发现了人类历史的发展规律……”，即以达尔文发现生物进化规律的历史性贡献来揭示马克思发现人类历史发展规律在全部人类文明史中的巨大历史意义。

运用此法，须注意：

1、被引用的另一对象(如达尔文)。应为确有定论的、众所周知的;

2、被引用的另一对象和用以相比较的这一对象间，应具有鲜明的、切实的可比性。否则，将因犯有类比不伦的错误而使论述不能成立。

五、设喻法

借用比喻手法，把被论证对象做为被比喻体，通过对另引入的比喻体的有关分析得出被论证对象的有关结论，从而达到论述目的的论证方法就是设喻法。例如鲁迅的《拿来主义》，论证如何正确对待外国文化时把面对外国文化比作是“一个穷青年”“得了一所大宅子”，然后又写了对这宅子的几种态度：一是“徘徊不敢走进门”者，一是“勃然大怒，放一把火烧光”者，一是“接受这一切，……大吸剩下的”者，一是“占有，挑选”利用者，运用人们共知的显而易见的常识，否定了前三种态度，肯定了后一种态度。这样也就不言而喻地论证了，对待外国文化应采取拿来辨别、批判地继承的态度。由于比喻体是具体的、形象的，所以用此设喻来论证抽象的深刻的道理，不但通俗易懂，而且鲜明、生动，具有很好的论证效果。

设喻法的使用，需认真选取比喻体，比喻体与要论证的问题间的比喻关系，须十分贴切而明确，对比喻体的有关解释要比对论证对象的相应解释简明易懂，(不然设喻就成了舍本求末)这样才能收到设喻论证的效果。

六、排除法

排除法就是对有关问题可能出现的所有论点一一列出，通过对作者所持论点之外的其他观点逐一论证其谬误性、虚假性，从而间接确立所持论点的立论方法。

例如《拿来主义》中，通过设喻方式，列出了对待文化遗产的可能出现的所有态度──不敢接触的，全盘否定的，通体接受的，批判地继承的。通过对前三种态度一一指出其为“孱头”、“昏蛋”、“废物”，逐个予以否定，即排除，从而确认了“占有，选择”是唯一正确的态度。这里采用的就是排除论证法。

运用此法，应注意所举各类对象综合起来要具有全面性，这是运用此法的基础和前提;还应注意所取被排除对象的各自特点，不容其间相互含有类同或混淆之处，否则，排除过程将拖泥带水，以致模糊了被确立对象的鲜明性，削弱了间接立论的逻辑力量。

七、正名法

通过指出被驳斥的论点在有关事物的概念上的虚假与错误，来否定被驳斥论点的一种反驳方法。常用于驳论中。

例如《什么是知识》一文，为驳斥一些人自以为自己是知识分子，自以为自己有知识，就通过给知识下科学的定义，再阐明那些人拥有的所谓“知识”，其实并非真正的知识，从而达到驳斥那些人自以为自己号称知识分子就是有知识的论点，其所采用的驳论方法，就是正名法。

八、归谬法

归谬法就是故意循着对方错误的论述逻辑，推导出明显的荒谬结论，从而达到否定对方论点的间接反驳方法。是驳论文章中常用的一种方法。

例如，《许战犯求和》一文中引述蒋介石“要知道政府今天在军事、政治、经济无论哪一方面的力量，都要超过共产党几倍乃至几十倍”，单就“军事力量”一方面算了一笔颇留有余地的细账：“人民解放军现在有三百万”，“几十倍是多少呢?姑且算着二十倍吧，就有六千多万人”;“拿六千多万人压下去，……当然一概成了粉末”!六千万人的军队，这是谁也不信的荒谬数字。这一按蒋介石本人的话推导出的这一荒谬得令人发笑的结果，有力地否定了蒋介石自吹强大的谬论。这种写法，具有特殊的逻辑力量和论战格调，往往能取得机智、幽默的表达效果，也常表现出真理在握的自信力。

应当注意的是，运用此方法推导出的结论，其荒谬性必须是异常显著的，否则，不会取得应有的驳斥力，甚至会弄巧成拙。

九、二难法

运用两组由选择句同假设句相套的多重复句形式，构成无论哪种选择下的假设一旦成立，都会推导出置对立论者于被动或失败境地的结论的间接论证方法。这种论证其推理结果造成使对方持论者陷于进退两难的地位，故名“二难法”，又因给对方持论者如两面刀，故又称“两刀论法”。

如恩格斯的《论权威》一文中，批驳了有些所谓“社会主义者”反对无产阶级革命所必须的政治权威的谬论，在指出政治权威的客观存在和反政治权威的危害性后，以这样一段话做结：“总之，二者必居其一。或者是反权威主义者自己不知所云，如果这样，那他们只是在散布糊涂观念;或者他们是知道的，如果是这样，那他们就是在背叛无产阶级运动。在这两种情况下，他们都只是为反动派效劳。”(《马克思恩格斯选集》第二卷，人民出版社1972年版，第554页)其中两组“或者是……”与“如果这样……”，每组推出的结论都是不利于“反权威主义者”的;而“在两种情况下……”这一判断则指明其反权威言行的客观政治效果“都只是为反动派效劳。”使得这种持论者进退维谷，其反权威主义的论点被反驳掉了。这里采用的就是“二难法”。

运用此种方法，须严格遵循选言、假言推理的逻辑法则，并在语言上采取相应的选择句套假设句的多重复句，以相套并两两对应的形式加以表述，令其逻辑方法同语言形式相谐调，以保证其论证力的发挥。

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后，把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来，写成的文章就叫“读后感”。以下是小编给大家整理的读后感写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

一、读后感的概念

读后感的概念有两重含义：一是真实的、不受任何约束的读后感，二是一种作文的体裁，考试时要接受各种条件的约束。下面这篇读后感，就接近于第一种读后感。写这种读后感，主要是给自己看的，一定要真实，有什么感想(当然感想应当有意义，值得一写)就写什么感想，与心得笔记不同，它要展开来写，尽量像一篇文章，尽量写得生动、实在、深刻。一般应当写清楚读了什么，有什么感想，联想到了什么，对自己有什么作用等。它不追求文体、格式框框，写起来也可长可短。

二、读后感的写法

写读后感最重要的一点是要读出所读书籍或者文章的“眼睛”，它是你展开来写的基础、中心和出发点，这个问题我们已经在上一讲里说过了，这里就不多讲了。其次，写读后感，有它一定的规矩，有的书上把它归纳为“引、议、联、结”，四个字，想公式一样。对于这些规矩我们不可以不学，考试时只要内容有创意，套用这种公式未尝不可;但我们也不要受其所限，写成千篇一律的“八股文”，也可尝试在结构上有自己的创意，有自己的个性。但不管怎样，读后感也离不开“读”——对原文的引述、概括、评价等等，离不开“感”——自己的感想。只要把这两个字表达好了，就是好的读后感。

三、写读后感的基本技巧

在读过一篇文章或一本书之后，把获得的感受、体会以及受到的教育、启迪等写下来，写成的文章就叫“读后感”。

读后感的基本思路如下：

(1)简述原文有关内容。如所读书、文的篇名、作者、写作年代，以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来，并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个"简"字，决不能 大段大段地叙述所读书、文的具体内容，而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分，略去与感想无关的东西。

(2)亮明基本观点。选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为"观点句"。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。"观点句"在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(3)围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出、更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实、所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

(4)围绕基本观点联系实际。一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息，有真情实感。要做到这一点，必须善于联系实际。这"实际"可以是个人的思想、言行、经历，也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点，为观点服务，而不能盲目联系、前后脱节。

以上四点是写读后感的基本思路，但是这思路不是一成不变的，要善于灵活掌握。比如，“简述原文”一般在“亮明观点”前，但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者，如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历，就不必再写第四个部分了。

四、写读后感应注意的问题

第一是要重视“读”

在“读”与“感”的关系中，“读”是“感”的前提、基础;“感”是“读”的延伸或者说结果。必须先“读”而后“感”，不“读”则无“感”。因此，要写读后感首先要读懂原文，要准确把握原文的基本内容，正确理解原文的中心思想和关键语句的含义，深入体会作者的写作目的和文中表达的思想感情。

第二是要准确选择感受点

读完一本书或一篇文章，会有许多感想和体会;对同样一本书或一篇文章，不同的人从不同的角度思考问题，更是会产生不同的看法、受到不同的启迪。以大家熟知的“滥竽充数”成语故事为例，从讽刺南郭先生的角度去思考，可以领悟到没有真本领蒙混过日子的人早晚要“露馅”，认识到掌握真才实学的重要性;若是考虑在齐宣王时南郭先生能混下去的原因，就可以想到领导者要有实事求是的领导作风，不能搞华而不实，否则会给混水摸鱼的人留下空子可钻;再要从管理体制的角度去思考，就可进一步认识到齐宣王的“大锅饭”缺少必要的考评机制，为南郭先生一类的人提供了饱食终日混日子的客观条件，从而联想到改革开放以来,打破"铁饭碗"，废除大锅饭的必要性。

一篇读后感，不能写出诸多的感想或体会，这就要加以选择。作为初学者，就要选择自己感受最深又觉得有话可说的一点来写。要注意把握分析问题的角度，注意联系自己的实际情况，从众多的头绪中选择最恰当的感受点，作为全文议论的中心。

通过对近些年英语作文出题的趋势来看，中考对英语写作的考察更偏重于交际情景设置和不同体裁的要求，但是由于客观和种种主观原因，很多同学的作文容易走入种种误区，这些误区主要体现在以下方面：

构思、准备不充分，匆忙下笔。任何一篇作文出题都是有它独特的道理的，所以提前审题和构思就显得必不可少了。文新学堂教学专家提醒，很多学生目 前存在一个情况，想到哪写到哪，这也造成了作文杂乱无章，毫无条理，同时容易出现写错单词和用错句型的情况。针对这种情况可以从以下几个方面予以解 决：

1、认真审题，审题的重点放在写作体裁、格式、字数方面，确保第一遍审题就能保证得到基本分。

2、确定文体和时态，因为不同的文体要求的写作格式也是 不同的

3、列提纲，打草稿，然后修改。这样可以保证错误降低至最少或者没有错误，同时也能保持卷面整洁。

中心重点不突出，切题不准确。英语写作不是语文散文(形散神不散)，写英语作文，尤其是在中考大压力下短时内写出高分作文一定要注意这一点。造 成这种情况的主要原因是动笔前并没有认真审题和思考，对出题者希望得到的预期尚未揣摩透彻，这也就造成了一些同学虽然语言功底非常不错，但是最终的结果还 是没有拿到一个自己预期的心理分数，最大的问题就出在切题不准确或者不够突出中心上了。

忽视文化差异。要时刻牢记一点，中英文表达方式有很大的差异，所以体现在作文表达上也常常会出现生硬的中国式作文表达，降低了作文质量。所以注重中英语言差异，并努力找到两者之间的表达方式上的共通点，并且有意识的运用就能避免类似的问题。

忽视细节，无谓失分。很多学生在写作文时常常感觉"下笔如有神"，但最终结果出来后大惑不解。这方面的问题主要体现在忽视标点、书写、段落安排、大小写的问题，所以只要更加注重细节，这些无谓失分就可以解决。

1、organize your thoughts before writing: brainstorm、make an outline、etc。 下笔前整合思绪：脑力激荡，写出纲要等。

2、write clearly。 be concise。 avoid wordiness。写作清晰，务必精简，避免赘言。

3、use good grammar and write complete sentences。 使用好的文法，写出完整句子。

4、write simple sentences。 avoid a fancy style。 尝试简单句，避免花俏的句法。

5、avoid slang、cliche and informal words。 避免俚语、陈腔滥调和非正式用字。

6、avoid use of the first person (i。e。 i/me/my) unless necessary to specific piece。除非必要，避免使用第一人称：如“我/我的”。

7、writing naturally。 read it aloud。 does it sound natural? does it flow? 自然挥洒，大声朗诵。整篇文章听起来自然吗?通顺吗?

8、move logically from one idea to the next。 dont skip steps。 上下句意要合乎逻辑。别毫无章法乱跳。

[坚持八条英语作文的写作守则

【导读】：散文诗兼有诗与散文特点的一种现代抒情文学体裁。它融合了诗的表现性和散文描写性的某些特点。从本质上看，它属于诗，有诗的情绪和幻想，给读者美和想象，但内容上保留了有诗意的散文性细节。

现在看见很多人喜欢和读散文诗，但是有的人对散文诗的基本认识还不是很清楚，所以造成了有些不知所措的感觉。现就仅仅个人来谈谈散文诗的写作和欣赏的方法。

散文诗兼有诗与散文特点的一种现代抒情文学体裁。它融合了诗的表现性和散文描写性的某些特点。从本质上看，它属于诗，有诗的情绪和幻想，给读者美和想象，但内容上保留了有诗意的散文性细节；从形式上看，它有散文的外观，不像诗歌那样分行和押韵，但不乏内在的音乐美和节奏感。散文诗一般表现作者基于社会和人生背景的小感触，注意描写客观生活触发下思想情感的波动和片断。这些特点，决定了它题材上的丰富性，也决定了它的形式短小灵活。

散文诗是一种近代文体，是适应近、现代社会人们敏感多思、复杂缜密等心理特征而发展起来的。虽然中国1000多年前就有类似散文诗的作品，欧洲在16、17世纪不少作家就写过很有诗意的散文，但作为一种独立的文学样式流行起来是在19世纪中叶以后。第一个正式用小散文诗这个名词，和有意采用这种体裁的是法国诗人波特莱尔。他认为散文诗足以适应灵魂的抒情性的动汤，梦幻的波动和意识的惊跳。在中国新文学中，散文诗是一个引进的文学品种。1915年2卷7期的中华小说界刊登的用文言翻译的屠格涅夫的四章散文诗(当时列入小说栏，译者刘半农)，是外国散文诗在中国的最早译介。1918年4卷5期的新青年杂志，发表了刘半农翻译的印度作品我行雪中的译文，文末所附的说明指出它是一篇结构精密的散文诗。散文诗这一名称从此开始在中国报刊上出现。对於这一文体的性质和特点，文学旬刊在1922年曾有过理论探讨，西谛(郑振铎)、滕固、王平陵等人都发表了意见。

关于散文诗的定义

一、散文诗，必须有两个特点：

其一，散文诗是诗和文的渗透、交叉产生的新文体。

散文诗是散文与诗嫁接出来的品种，这是没有疑问的。散文诗具有诗与散文的两栖特征，散文诗既吸收诗表现主观心灵和情绪的功能，也吸收了散文自由、随便抒怀状物的功能，并使两者浑然一体，形成了自己的独特性。可以说不熟悉诗与散文这两种文体，就很难创作散文诗。但是散文诗究竟是一种新的文体，还是如有人说的：散文诗是散文的诗和诗的散文？关键要看散文诗是否具有独特的艺术特征，或者说散文诗区别与诗和抒情散文的艺术特征是什么。

其二，散文诗有其独特的审视人生方式，即运用比较自由的形式抒写心灵或情绪及其波动。从总体上看来，散文诗是抒写心灵或主观情绪的文体。

波德莱尔是散文诗的最初创造者之一。他说过：当我们人类野心滋长的时候，谁没有梦想到那散文诗的神秘，－－声律和谐，而没有节奏，那立意的精辟辞章的跌宕，足以应付那心灵的情绪、思想的起伏和知觉的变幻。。他还说：散文诗这种形式，足以适应灵魂的抒情性的动荡、梦幻的波动和意识的惊跳。动荡、波动、惊跳，这说出了散文诗的主要艺术特征。

要说明上述两点，必须进一步区别散文诗与诗、与散文（尤其是抒情散文）的不同之处。

二、散文诗与诗、与散文（尤其是抒情散文）的区别。比如结构、语体、节奏等方面的不同。

（1）散文诗与抒情诗的区别。抒情诗由于要讲究句式的整齐或大体整齐和音乐韵律，因此，即便是自由体的抒情诗，在表现心灵或情绪时也不能不受到较多限制。正是为了突破限制，更舒卷自如地写出心灵的真实状态，于是才有散文诗这一文体的诞生。

散文诗与诗歌的不同之处在于散文诗经常运用描述和议论的表现手段。

与诗相比，散文诗没有诗的韵脚、节奏、音节、行数、排列，即没有诗歌的外形式的羁绊。散文诗的形式至少有如下几种：散文的形式，散文与诗交错排列的形式，即整段散的文字与单句(诗句)的交错。这是抒情诗不可能有的自由自在的形式。

（2）散文诗和抒情散文同是抒情文体，但散文诗独特的艺术特征是它的动荡、波动、惊跳。

承认散文诗是抒写心灵或情绪及其波动的文体，这与抒情散文的界限也就不难区分了。抒情散文总是离不开纪实，更不用说那些以记叙真人真事为主的叙事散文了。而散文诗几乎没有原原本本地记录真实人物和真实事件的。即使我们称为纪实的散文诗，究其实也是抒写的内心对现实生活的印象，不过这印象很少变形很少对现实生活作想象式的反映罢了。

在结构上，有人说，诗是以线抒写生活，散文是以面反映生活，散文诗是以点折射生活。散文大都有时空长度，都有线索；散文诗无需线索，篇幅较短，常常是作者情感燃烧的那一点辐射开来，而内在情绪则形成环环相扣的情感冲击波，冲动读者的心弦，进入诗的境界。

在语体上，散文诗的语言是抒情性的想象的语言，散文的语言是叙事性的现实的语言。散文诗的语言具有散文语言无法比拟的弹性美、丰富性和不确定性，情感含量和美感含量都比较大。散文为文，语言要求简洁洒脱，更多一些娓娓而谈，写清作者情之所系的来龙去脉，抒情也更细腻，句与句之间、段与段之间衔接较紧密。散文诗为诗，语言要求浓缩、跳跃，一般是跳跃式地联结意象，句与句之间，尤其是段与段之间，往往是似断实连的关系，这就留下较多的可供读者想象的空白美。

因此，散文诗既不是散文的诗，也不是诗的散文，它是具有完整性、特殊性、独立性的文体形式。

关于散文诗的结构

散文诗结构的基本方式大体有纪实性（直抒式）、想象式、哲理式和象征式四大类。

1、纪实性（直抒式），即意在象表，比较外露。比如写景抒情、叙事抒情等。或者说是心灵感受外部世界基本上是原原本本的，是什么就在心灵投影什么，很少变化。直抒胸臆的散文诗通常用此种方式。

一、明确写作要求，弄清任务。

在写作任务驱动型材料作文时，考生要细读材料、细读题目要求，完成写作任务。全国卷Ⅰ的作文在叙述材料后有两段文字，这两段字应是考生关注的重点之一。为了叙述的方便，现在摘录如下：

对于以上的事件你怎么看？请给小陈、老陈或其它相关方写一封信，表明你的态度，阐述的你看法。

要求综合材料内容及含义，选好角度，确定立意。完成写作任务，明确收信人，统一以“明华”为写信人，不得泄露个人信息。

这两段就集中地展示了命题者设置的任务要求，仔细分析应有如下的任务：①“对以上的事你怎么看？表明你的态度，阐述你的看法”这就表明要写成议论文，不能写成记叙文。“表明你的态度，阐述你的看法”就要求写作时学生有个性化的思考。②“请给小陈、老陈或是相关方写封信”，这就加强了考生论述观点的针对性，要求就事说理，不能脱离所选的一方而任意写作。同时要求写成一封信，以信的形式来展开论述。信的格式无疑就会成为判分的依据之一。③“综合材料内容及含义”，就是要求考生围绕材料中的核心事件，形成像样的、可以阐述的看法，体现自己的思考，表达自己的想法。其他非核心事件可以涉及，但是不能“喧宾夺主”，叙述非核心事件只是为了更好地议论核心事件。③“选好角度”。针对这一点，教育部考试中心余闻明确指出，任务驱动型作文材料角度有核心角度、主要角度、次要角度、沾边角度之分。因此考生写作时就事要抓住核心事件来确立核心角度、主要角度。明白了这些要求，再按照这些要求来写就符合命题者命题意图。

二、抓住材料核心事实，明确是非。

这一则材料表达的有这么几层意思：⒈陈父在高速路上开车时打电话，家人屡劝不改；⒉小陈迫于无奈，为了父亲的生命安全，通过微博私信向警举报自己的父亲；⒊警方查实后，依法教育处罚老陈，并将这起举报放在官方微博上；⒋小陈之行为、警方的做法，赢得众多网友的点赞，也引发一些质疑；⒌媒体报道后激起了更大范围更多角度的讨论。

这则材料中涉及老陈、小陈、警方、网友、媒体这五方。从材料看，老陈、小陈、警方三方是核心事实，网友点赞、质疑，媒体报道是这些核心事实产生的影响。因此分析材料要紧抓这三件核心事实。

首先我们来分析老陈的行为。老陈不顾家人多次劝告，总在高速路上开车时接电话。命题者对老陈之行为明显是持批评态度，老陈这是把生命当儿戏，是极不正确的。这种行为要批判。再看小陈“迫于无奈，更出于父亲生命的考虑，通过微博私信举报自己的父亲。”从举报的原因、目的来看，小陈是正确的。但在举报方式上是否有更好的呢？值得考生思考。警方查实后依法教育处罚老陈，体现了实事求是以及法治精神，值得称赞；但把这一事件公布到官方微博，其主观目的是为了警醒大众，但客观上也将小陈置身舆论的漩涡之中。通过这样的分析我们能够辨别是非，为后面的写作找到方向。

三、选好角度，围绕是非，确立观点。

所谓“选好角度”，就是指要从核心角度、重要角度来立意，这一则材料中就应围绕老陈、小陈、警方这三个核心角度或重要角度来写作；当然，在核心角度这一前提下，应兼顾自己擅长的角度。也就是自己积累了相关素材，有思想、理论上的准备的角度。

在写作时，可围绕是非来设置分论点。比如从老陈角度来写，可以着力围绕其错误做法来展开论证。如在高速路上开车时打电话的危害等来展开，劝其注意生命安全、遵守交通法规等。又如从小陈角度来写，一方面要突出其举报的意义、围绕其积极意义来写作，把这些作为文章之第一部分；另一方面，也要指出其举报方式值得商榷，以及举报自己父亲与中国传统伦理不一致，并提出自己应对一情况的做法。还可以从警方的角度，抓住警方“查实”后“依法”“教育处罚”老陈，体现了实事求是、依法行政等精神，值得称赞；并指出警方把这一事件公布到官方微博，其主观目的是为了警醒大众，但客观上也将小陈置身舆论的漩涡之中的事实，探讨警方执法是否可以人性化些。这样确立观点，就准确、全面、有思辨性，符合高考对学生的考 要求。

四、围绕材料就事说理，类比论证展开写作

过去的材料作文中，材料总是起引出观点的作用，引出观点后，用途不多。而任务驱动型材料作文中的材料除了生发出观点外，还应把“分析材料、就事说理”贯穿在具体的写作中，这是任务驱动型材料的一个显著特点。

就全国卷Ⅰ而言，在写作时就应紧紧围绕一方材料来提出观点，展开论证，要结合材料向读者入情入理地阐述自己的看法。也可联系类似材料进行类比、辨析，分析事件背后的情、理、法等核心价值观。值得关注的是学生在写作中类比不当，使得说服力不强，造成论证乏力。这里所谓的类比事理，就是同材料中相关方行为在本质上有同一性。

总之，任务型驱动作文，并不是山中老虎，没有什么可怕的。它也有相应的规律可循，只要向学生阐明审题立意及其写作的方法，并让学生不断实践，他们就可以写好任务驱动型材料作文。

环保，全称环境保护，是指人类为解决现实的或潜在的环境问题，协调人类与环境的关系，保障经济社会的持续发展而采取的各种行动的总称。下面小编为大家带来，希望对大家有帮助！

1.Only by changing the way we treat the environment can we get along well with it.Only by saving the environment can save ourselves.

只有我们改变对待环境的态度,我我们才能和它更好地相处.只有我们拯救了环境,我们才能拯救自己.

2.When the sky blue again,the rivers become clean,and the grass is always green,well live a healthier and happier life.

当天空再次湛蓝,河水变得清澈,草地永远碧绿,我们才会拥有更健康更快乐的生活.

3.If we go on polluting water,the last drop of water will be our tears.

如果我们继续污染水资源,世界上最后一滴水将会使我们的眼泪.

4.Saving oer environment is everyones duty.

挽救我们的环境是每个人的责任.

5.Our earth is just our future.

我们的地球就是我们的未来.

6.To protect the earth is to protect ourselves.

保护地球就是保护我们自己.

7.Everyone should remember that we have olny one earth.

每个人都应该谨记,我们只有一个地球.

8.Not a clean environment,then the living conditions favourable meaningless.

没有一个清洁的环境,再优裕的生活条件也无意义.(曲格平)

9.Nature is kind mother,the butcher is grim.

大自然是善良的母亲,也是冷酷的屠夫.(雨果)

10.With the beach,we cant enjoy the sea.With the sun,the isnt beautiful,either.Without the environment,we also lose home.

没有了海滩,我们享受不到大海的乐趣.没有了太阳,月亮也不再美丽.没有了环境,我们也就失去了家园.

11.Environmental problems are becoming more and more serious all over the world.For example,cars have made the air unhealthy for people to breathe and poisonous gas is given off by factories.Trees on the hills have been cut down and waste water is being poured continuously into rivers.Furthermore,wherever we go today,we can find rubbish carelessly disposed.Pollution is,in fact,threatening our existence.

全世界的环境问题变得越来越严重.例如汽车污染的空气影响了人们的呼吸,工厂释放污染的气体,山上的树木被砍伐,污水不断被排人河里.另外,无论我们走到哪里,到处可见随意丢弃的垃圾.事实上,污染正威胁我们的生存.

12.The earth is our home and we have the duty to take care of it for ourselves and for our later generations.Fortunately,more and more people have realized these problems.Measures have been taken to cope with these problems by the government.Laws have been passed to stop pollution.I hope the problem will be solved in the near future and our home will become better and better.

地球是我们的家园,我们有责任为我们自己和我们的后代去照顾好它.庆幸的是,愈来愈多的人们已经意识到这些问题.政府已经采取了很多措施去解决这些问题,法律已被通过以制止污染.我希望这些问题在不远的将来能得到解决,我们的家园变得越来越好.

13.Environmental problems are becoming more and more serious all over the world.With the development of industry and agriculture,cars make GREat noises and give off poisonous gas.Trees on the hills have been cut down,and waste water is being poured continuously into rivers.Furthermore,wherever we go today,we can find rubbish carelessly disposed.The whole ecological balance of the earth is changing.Massive destruction of environment has brought about negative effects and even poses a great threat to mans existence.

全世界的环境问题在变得越来越严重.随着工农业的发展,汽车制造噪音、排放毒气,山上的树木被砍伐,污水不断被排入河里.另外,无论我们走到哪里,到处可见随意丢弃的垃圾.整个地球生态平衡正在改变,环境的巨大破坏已带来负面影响,甚至对人类生存带来巨大威胁.

14.We must face the situation that exists and take actions to solve our environmental problems.For instance,new laws must be passed to place strict control over industrial pollution,the pub!ic must receive the education about the hazard of pollution and so on.We hope that all these measures will be effective and bring back a healthful environment.

当前社会上比较流行开办诸如写作培训班之类的课外学习班，家长为了不让孩子输在起跑线上，常为此四处奔波挑选适配的学习班。

殊不知这类学习班往往是一些师德有问题的老师捞取不义之财的骗术伎俩，为人师表的他们不在课堂上传道、授业、解惑，却跑到外边开办所谓补习班，看起来是帮助孩子提高成绩，其实是把课堂上的知识分成几份分发给孩子们而已。可惜我们可爱的家长们却浑然不觉间如同飞蛾扑火，把辛苦挣的血汗钱拱手送给那些所谓的“恩师”，补交了党和政府用心良苦为祖国的花朵减免的学费。而事实上写作的方法根本就不曾存在过，只不过是个传说。

在任务驱动型作文的背景下，怎样才能把一个论题阐述深透呢?许多同学无从下手，所写的文章老是停留在肤浅的层面，得分不高，在此，介绍“巧设反方，探源究底”的方法，以供同学学习参考。

“巧设反方”就是在正面论述的基础之上，提出有可能出现的反方看法或观点，尽力预设，尽力设全，以体现你思维的周密性。

“探源究底”就是在预设反方的前提下，探究反方观点产生的根源以及错误的本质，甚至对反方观点进行有力的批驳，让它站不住脚，从而使自己的看法有理有力。

例如：

阅读下面的材料，根据要求写一篇不少于800字的文章。(60分)

不久前，某大学在临近期末时发生了这样一事：夜幕下，风雨中，一群大学生在校农场打着手电栽种油菜。校长对媒体说：“学生必须亲手碰到泥巴，才能知道什么是奋斗，什么是劳动。”农场劳动是该校的必修课，是“毕业通行证”。这种观点和做法得到了不少网民的支持。

然而也有人持不同意见：为挣学分冒雨挑灯夜战，是否有矫枉过正之嫌?还有人认为，大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，此举有形式主义之嫌。

对于以上事件及不同观点，你怎么看?请表明你的态度，阐述你的看法。要求综合材料内容及含意，选好角度，确定立意，完成写作任务。

示范例文：

亲历劳动，方知奋斗

某高校开设种田必修课，学生夜里打手电种油菜，新闻一出，立刻引发热议，有支持者，也有反对者，更有抨击者，但无论何种反应都体现了大众对高校教育、对人才培养的一种关注、一种思索。

亲历劳动，方知奋斗。学校的良苦用心是值得大力称赞的。农场劳动，不单是一门必修课程，是毕业的通行证，更是一种观念、一种品质的培养。党的教育方针明确指出：教育必须与生产劳动相结合……未来世界的竞争是“人才素质”的竞争，而劳动素质又是人才素质中极其重要的一个方面。但令人叹息的是，有许多的网民，却反对高校的这种做法，质疑这种做法的真正意图，或许是因为他们觉得大学生的首要任务是学习专业知识，应该把时间更多地放在精进自己的专业水平上，不能也没有必要去做“普通农民”所做的“农活”，然而，这个理由不过只是个幌子，是个借口，何况精进专业知识，也不是“不问世事，一心只读圣贤书”就能达成的，再说，闭门苦读就一定能够学好专业知识吗?更深层的原因，恐怕是大众内心对“农”的鄙视，是自古以来就有的对“读书人”的崇敬与膜拜：认为田间劳作是没有文化修养或修养较低的农民干的，文化人，既然已经跳出农门，就不要也不必再碰农活了。他们主观上认为“读书人”与“农民”是截然不同的两种身份，而这种认识，又恰恰是长期以来由阶级的差距衍生出的优越感而催生的。

爱劳动，才会生活;学会劳动，才能学会生活。高校开展农场劳动必修课，不仅可行，更有深远意义。学生在学校，不仅要学会一些理论性的东西，还需进行各种各样的实践劳动，只有二者相结合，才能更好地提升学生的综合素质。农场劳动，除了能提高学生们的动手能力、实践能力，让学生更接地气，还能让学生在获得劳动的切身体验中，认识到粒粒皆辛苦，尊重劳动人民和劳动成果，更能让学生在艰苦环境的磨炼中，培养一种吃苦耐劳、艰苦奋斗的精神。事实上，人的很多优秀的品质，都可以在劳动中形成。

发扬光大该校的这一做法，或许我们可以有更好做法，加强宣传教育，提高学生积极主动参加劳动实践的意识，鼓励学生积极参加各种各样的社会实践活动，而不局限于田间劳作，更无需用“必修”的形式，来强制学生，为完成学分临时抱佛脚而在临近期末时连夜冒雨打手电种油菜。

“民生在勤，勤则不匮”，无论时代如何变化，我们始终都要热爱劳动、崇尚劳动。

【点评】

本文在正面阐述了理由之后，先预设网民的不同观点与看法，然后，逐步探寻出产生这些看法的根源，有表面的原因，也有更深层次的原因。显示作者非一般的思维能力，文章也因此步入更高的档次。是一种不可多得的方法。

童话，讲述的是虚拟的故事，并不是真实的。以下是小编给大家整理的小学生童话作文写作方法的内容，欢迎大家查看。

一、我们在写之前要弄清什么是童话?

童话：是通过丰富的想象、幻想和夸张，来塑造形象、反映生活、对儿童进行思想、道德教育的一种文学样式。童话，讲述的是虚拟的故事，并不是真实的。其中的"人物"，也是假想形象，并非真有其人。但它所表现的人、事、关系、道理，却是现实生活的反映。

二、童话都有哪些特点呢?

第一、写童话需要幻想和夸张

幻想和夸张，是童话的两只"翅膀"。 幻想，是我们对未来生活的想象。童话离不开幻想，幻想离不开夸张。夸张，是对所要表现的对象或某种特征，故意夸大或缩小的一种修辞手法。没有夸张，幻想的内容就会失去光彩;没有夸张童话中的形象就会暗淡无光;没有夸张，童话的讽刺性就会失去锋芒;没有夸张，童话的语言就会缺乏感染力。如《皇帝的新装》中，那个爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的赤裸裸的皇帝，在现实生活中可能是不存在的，但我们却相信这个故事，因为现实中就有大量爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的人存在，同时也就应运而产生了那种骗子，他们利用一些人的爱慕虚荣、愚蠢，导演着一幕幕荒延的闹剧。这种幻想，源于生活又高于生活，具有相当高的艺术价值。

第二、写童话需要有拟人化的形象

童话里的形象，大多是拟人化的。童话中，无论是动物、植物，其他东西，都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时，如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话，儿童便没有兴趣。"

第三、写童话需要有奇妙、曲折丶动人丶完整的故事情节。

由于童话创作的主要手法是想象、幻想、夸张和拟人，因此，童话的情节都非常奇妙，洋溢着浓烈的浪漫主义色彩。如《神笔马良》的故事，说的是穷孩子马良，凭顽强刻苦的精神，得到了一支神笔。他拿着这支神笔帮助贫苦大众，智斗财主、皇帝，让人读后无不称快。

三、 童话的写作和要求。

优秀的童话都不是凭空产生的，都是作者细心观察现实生活中的人、事、物后，通过"幻想处理"，创作出来的。写童话不仅需要细心观察，还要经过一个"幻想处理"，也就是"生活幻想化"的过程。只有经过这个过程，生活才能成为童话。在创作童话时，还要注意五点要求：

第一、童话中的幻想是生活的反映，因此要植根于现实。

第二、童话中的夸张一定要突出事物的本质。脱离事物本质的夸张，只能让人感到荒诞、不可信，也就失去了童话的教育意义。

第三、童话中的拟人，一定要抓住事物的特征，符合动植物的特征。

第四、在一篇童话中，表现手法要多样，这样会使你的童话故事显得生动感人。

第五、语言简洁活泼，符合儿童的语言特点。

四、怎样创编童话故事?

1、利用"假设"进行想象

假设某一具体情况，让学生根据这种情况，结合自己的生活经验进行想象、联想。想象可以超越时空、超越自我，甚至想象出世界上不存在的事物。例如，阿凡提来到我们当中，会飞的猴子，鳄鱼拿着一支玫瑰花来敲我的门……这些都是合理的想象。这样坚持下来，久而久之，就会想、敢想，就能大胆创新。

2、利用"绘画"展示故事内容，发展想象能力

在"创编童话"过程中，不要以"写故事"的形式把故事内容展示出来，而是打开绘画纸，展开想象，自由作画，把想到的东西画出来。"画好故事"以后，再给画面配上文字，就成为一篇简单的童话故事了。

3、利用"表演"展现故事情节

例如《小红帽》，可以五人一组，分别扮演"小红帽"、"妈妈"、"外婆"、"猎人"、"狼"，将故事表演出来，表演时可以加以创造，不要完全按照原文表演。表演后，几个人凑在一起，研究一下怎样给故事欢歌结尾。

4、利用"续编"延续故事内容

如《狼和小羊》一文的结尾是："狼不想再争辩了，龇着牙，向小羊扑去……"可以大胆想象并续编故事：小羊最终的结局如何呢?如，小羊想了一个好办法战胜了狼，从此过着幸福的生活。这些与众不同的办法，就是你的想象力;把这些想象写下来，就是一篇很好的童话故事了。

童话里的形象，大多是拟人化的。童话中，无论是动物、植物，其他东西，都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时，如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话，儿童便没有兴趣。"

导语：在进行语言描写时，我们常犯的一个错误是把人物当做自己的传声筒，导致每个人说到话都一样。下面我们来看看怎么锤炼人物的语言。

俗话说：“言为心声”，再言是人物“思想的外衣”，描写语言，有助于刻画人物件格.因而，在写人的作文中，对人物语言的描写必不可少。人物的语言分为独白和对话。独白是人物自言自语说出来的话，描写独内，能够扱直接地反映人物性格。人物访言的描写似多见的是描写人物的对话，我们所说的描写人物的语言，主要是指描写人物的对话。对话的涵义很广，不仅包括两人的对答，而且还包括一个人对大家的讲话，几个人在一起的谈话。

写人物的语言，首先要掌握对话的几种表现形式。引用人物对话，主要有三种形式：

第一种形式是先提出说话人，然后用冒号引出他说的话。

第二种形式是先写出说的话，然后再指出说话的人，说话人的后面用句号。

第三种形式是只写出对话，而不写出说话的人。

这几种对话形式，最常见的是第一种。前两种对话形式，我们经常运用，比较好掌握。在运用第三种吋一定要注意：如两人多次对话，不用重复某某说，可以直接写出每个人的话，但必须各自单独成段。如果是三人以上对话，必须指明说话者为谁。对话的三种形式，可以单独侦用，也可以混合使用。往往不能截然分开。

写人物的语言，最重要的是为表现人物的思想、性格服务，突出某个人物的个性特征。不同性格的人有自己独特的语言习惯。语言描写，要合乎人物的身份和性格特点。鲁迅先生曾说：“高尔基很惊服巴尔扎克小说里写对话的巧妙，以为并不描写人物的模样，却能使读者看了对话，便好像目睹了说话的那些人。”这样的描写便是个性化的语言描写。俄国著名文学家契诃夫的《变色龙》对人物语言的描写就很有个性。小说通过精彩的对话刻画了警官奥楚蔑洛夫的形象，突出了他那见风使舵的性格特点。

学习了文学大师们描写语言的超技艺，我们怎样才能像他们一样，在作文中把人物对话写生动，写出个性化的语言来，以此反映人物性格特征呢?

第一，要对周围的人认真观察，深入了解所写人物的个性特征，写口语化的语言。

生活中柯各种各样的人，因年龄不同，有老人、中年、靑年和小孩，也们语言不一样;因身份不同，有T人、农民、教帅•、干部，他们的语言也不会一样。即使同样是丁人，因年龄、性格、爱好、经历的不同•说出的话也会不同。我们要做有心人，平时多留心听各种人说的话，通过比较，发现各种人语言上的差异，了解各种身份、性格的人物语言上的特点，粘选那些圾能表现人物性格的话反映出人物的个性来。

有的同学却不擅长于这样做，他们常握不了各类人的口语习惯，不论写谁，都是用自己的语言代转作品中人物的访言。这种不分对象，不苻年龄，不管性格，都写成一个腔调的做法，显然是犯了千人一腔的毛病。要避免这一毛病，就要认真观察周围的人，了解他们的性格特征，避免说教式，采用语化。这样，就能做到什么人说什么话，人物的语言合乎人物的身份、年龄、性格，人物的对话就能也动、典型、有个性。

第二，写人物对话，还要注意配合描写说话人的心情、姿态、神情、口气等。

有岬同学写人物的对话，一味地你说、我说、他说，文贲单调、刻板。如果我们写了对话，还描写出说话人的神情、语气等，不仅荷助于读者深刻理解对话的意思，而旦使文章更加生动、感人。如《我的叔叔于勒》中，莫泊桑对人物的语言描写很生动：

父亲神色狼狈，低声嘟哝着：“出大乱子了!”

母亲突然秘怒起来说：“我就知道这个贼是不会有出息的，早晚会回来重新拖累我们的。”

作者通过人物的语言、神态揭示人物丰宵的心理活动，细腻地的刻_了人物的性格特点。

第三，如果文中人物对话较多，一定要分行写，也就是问和答都要另起一行，这样不仅使说话人的身份不发生混淆，而且读起来畅快，富于变化。

学习写人物对话，要注意让人物语言口语化，符合人物的年龄、身份、性格，稍选那呰最能表现人物性格的个性化语言，话耍粘炼，不能不分主次，眉毛胡子一把抓。在描写对话时，再配合描写人物说话时的神怡、姿态、语气等，那么，语言描写一定会成功。同学们，让我们多留心身边人的语言特点，多学习一些描写语言的技巧，多读其他同学们的优秀范文，在作文中大胆实践，让语言描写为我们更好地塑造人物服务。

我们正常看书或老师批阅论文首先看作者简介和致谢、后记之类的内容，然后再阅读正文。

毕业设计的老师从事多年的教育工作.李老师这样说到：看了一些毕业论文的致谢，不少还是人文学科的，不知是因为写作规范的限制，抑或是别的原因，有些论文的致谢很平淡，公式一样的套话，寥寥几句，少有真情实感，与论文正文的文笔很不相称。致谢不是写学术思想历程回忆。我看学生的论文也注意致谢，如果谢来谢去的人太多，我总疑心论文不是他自己写的。如果是感谢我，我会感到一身的不自在，不管是不是出于真情。学术论文是一件很庄严的事情，在里面洋洋洒洒磕头作揖恐怕有些不合适吧。钱钟书先生的《管锥编》中感谢责任编辑只有一句话，简短而得体：”命笔之时，数请益于周君振甫，小叩辄发大鸣，实归不负虚往，良朋嘉惠，并志简端。”我们不妨学学。先不管论文质量好坏，抒发自己的情感才是最重要的，致谢需要的真情实感的展现与流露。要在其中洋溢真情实感，体现了中国传统文化中所具的感恩心等，不要有空洞的套话。这样才能让毕业论文更加出彩，做学术和做人一样，最重要的一个字就是“真”，学术上要“真才实学”，不能“弄虚作假”;做人上要“真情实感”，不能“虚情假意”!

写人写事作文的写作方法

一、写人作文

在记叙文中，写人作文占有重要地位。

写人的目的， 就是通过具体事例，主要表现人物的性格、精神、 品质。写人作文的类型一般有一事写人、几事写人 两种。

一事写人就是通过一件事来反映人物的精神 品质； 几事写人就是通过几件事（一般是二或三件 事）来反映人物的一个精神品质或多个品质。

因此， 写人的作文，应通过对事件的具体描述和对人物的 外表（外貌、神情、动作、语言）、内心的描写来 表现人物的精神品质，着重刻画人物在事件中是怎 样体现自己的精神品质的。

写人作文的基本写法

1、①介绍人物及人物外貌。

②直接描写人物外貌，带出要写的人物及其品质。

2、按事情发展的顺序有详有略地写清人物在事情 中的表现。（若是几事写人的，重点事例要放在 前头写，具体写；次要的事例后面写，略写。）

3、①总结全文，点明人物品质。 ②照应开头，自我勉励。 （说明：开头、结尾的①与①相对应，②与②相 对应。下同。）

我的同学

大大的、水灵灵的眼睛，高高的鼻子， 一张能说会道的大嘴巴，黑黑的皮肤，总 是扎着粗大的马尾辨。大家都知道她是谁 吗？对，她就是――高雅.

我和高雅都是数学科代表，可是高雅收 作业特别认真，有一次，陈子莹课堂作业 还没有做完，可是已到了放学时间，贺老 师留我和高雅在教室继续收作业，晚上我 还要上培优，我就对高雅说：“高雅，我 先走了，你收吧。”“好的。”后来我才 知道高 雅那天收本子到6点，还主动教别人做题。 我的脸一下子红了起来。

还有一次，我们一起收作业本，一直到 快放学时才收齐，我数了数本子，一共55 本，还差一本，到底是谁呢？我们俩问了 每列的组长，他们都说交齐了。我心理烦 死了，高雅安慰我“黄心宇，咱们在找找 吧，一定能找到的，不要灰心。”我不耐 烦地说：“找什么找，肯定找不到。万一 那个儿单独交给老师，没跟我们说：或是 就算那个人没交，我们一个个问时，他说 交了呢？我们是找不到的，交给贺老师处 理 吧，贺老师肯定找得到的。”高雅生气地 说：“怎么可以这样呢？你又不是没看到， 贺老师今天要改4大摞本子，贺老师那么辛 苦，如果还要管这些

小事，要我们两个科 代表做什么？”“好好好，我跟你一起找， 行吧。”我嘴上说帮着找，其实我就随随 便便地翻了一下，然后坐在一旁看起了漫 画。我看了一眼高雅，看着她垂着头一本 一本的找着，估计没什么进展，我一笑， 想：“我说找不到，你还不信，这下信了 吧！”突然高雅眼睛一亮，走到田磊身旁， 对他说“本子 交出来吧，我都看到了。”田磊一紧张， 哆嗦地说：“我……我藏什……什么了？” 高雅突然来了个“海底捞月”以迅雷不及 眼耳之势，从田磊的书包里拿出了本子， 翻开一看，果然没做完，她叫田磊赶快做 完，然后交给了贺老师。等高雅做完这一 切，我才发现我全身冒汗，脸一阵一阵的 泛红。 高雅的认真是我远不及的，我特别佩服 她。

这就是我的同学――高雅，我的好朋友！

我的同桌

三年以来，班里发生的事可以说多如牛 毛，写什么呢？我一时犯难了。想来想去， 我决定写写我和同桌之间发生的一些趣事。

我初三的同桌是某男性公民。鉴于他爱 睡觉，我赏他一个美称：睡狮。对此他满 不在乎，欣然接受的同时也赐我一绰号— —老虎，因为我练过武术，很厉害。

睡 狮最伟大的事业是睡觉。据说每晚不 到9点就倒头呼呼大睡，一觉到天亮。 有时还把睡觉的地点由宿舍转移到教室，

在老师的眼皮底下补上一小觉。 睡狮醒来时往往是下课时分。他的嘴时 常不闲着，叽里咕噜哼着“老鼠爱大米” 等歌曲。有次，我正想题，被他打断了， 怒不可遏地吼道：“唱什么唱？如果老鼠 爱大米就让它唱给大米听，再说了，难道 你是老鼠？”“吼什么吼？眼瞪得和牛眼 似的，我方坚决执行睦邻友好政策，况且 好男不跟女斗。”“狗嘴吐不出象牙 来。”“你倒是吐一个给我看看？” 好啊，这等于骂我是……是可忍孰不可忍， 既然敌人已如此嚣张地点燃了战争的导火 线，反正和他纠缠不清，何苦多费口舌， 我怒目圆瞪准备动手。“君子动口不动 手。”“我不是君子。接招！” 他尝过我的厉害，不敢招架，灰溜溜地 逃之夭夭，嘴里喊着：“好汉不吃眼前亏， 三十六计走为上。

俗话说“君子报仇十年不晚”，可睡狮的 报复说来就来。中午做完作业，我趴在桌 子上小憩。好几次快要去见周公时，都感 觉耳朵痒酥酥的，有人在吹气。又是睡狮 在捣 鬼！我睡意全无，怒火中烧，正要发作， 见同学们还在睡觉，为了顾全大局，便在 纸上写道：也不看看现在是女权高涨的年 代，我修练武功多年，内功扎实，打遍天 下无敌手，高手总是寂寞，怎么着？陪我 过两招？ 他忙抱拳，陪着笑脸说：“罪过，罪 过。”对于这种没骨气的人，我懒得动手， 省得别人说我欺负弱者。当然，旧账新账 一起算，我的不追究是以他损失一袋薯条、 一包QQ糖、一盒冰淇淋为代价的。他那点 小钱，七开八支，很快口袋就底朝天啦， 但 同桌关系却在美味中走向和谐。 多数

时候我们吵闹的前提是完成了作业， 这是老师没有把我们分开的原因。有了作 业双方争先恐后，全力以赴。也是“将遇 良才，棋逢对手”，每次几乎都是同时抬 起头来，相视一笑，OK！他友好地给我讲 个故事，我则眯了眼歪了头，摆出一幅准 备听《一千零一夜》长篇的样子。

他说故 事的主人公有个挺厉害的名字叫老虎，我 就知道上当了，赏他一顿暴风骤雨般的拳 头。当我提出要给他讲故事时，他立刻提 高了警惕，谢绝了我。于是，我拉过前面 的好友，说：“奇了怪了，我今天看到一 头狮子，竟戴着眼镜，穿着蓝背心，脚蹬 安踏运动鞋，最不可思议的是，爱唱老 鼠爱大米。”我俩笑得东倒西歪，睡狮 看看自己的打扮，说了一句重复了千万遍 的台词：“凶煞之气向四周蔓延，没有比 一千只鸭子更让人头疼的了。”他知道此 时抱头鼠窜才是他最佳的选择。没等他站 起，“咚咚咚”，老师那44码大皮鞋敲击 着楼道，铿锵地由远及近。顿时，这里的 黎明静悄悄，我们 迅速翻开书，做孜孜状。 说实在的，自从和他同桌，我们不知上 了对方多少次当，我们也适应了彼此间的 胡搅蛮缠，觉得这样子的吵闹，就像做有 点难度的数学题一样过瘾，一天不闹就像 少了点什么似的，不习惯。

如今，我和同 桌即将各奔前程，想到这儿，心里麻酥酥 的，萌生出丝丝不舍……

词汇拼写错误较为严重，词汇选用上会有不当的情况。

应对策略就是平时阅读过程中注意单词拼写，关注单词使用语境，多积累高级词汇和句型。

语法掌握不好，句子的基本构成主谓结构掌握不清。

Due to the fact that the mental state, we have to keep a balance between the physical and the mental.

这句话中，due to the fact that后面需要接一个句子，而上句中只是一个名词性短语，所以错误。另外，between...and...需要连接两个名词短语，上句中形容词physical和mental后缺少名词性成分。改正为Due to the fact that the mental state plays a significant role, we have to keep a balance between the physical well-being and the mental health.

格式不正确，结构不清晰，汉语式英文思维太过明显，翻译的过程中常常不合英文写作要求。

应对的策略是多阅读范文，写作前列提纲，注意使用衔接词。

格式不正确常常出现在应用文中，有人会忘记写落款。这是我们在写作过程中特别需要注意的，否则格式错误就要相应的扣分。另外，有些文章结构不清晰，或者没有分段，或者段落之间的内容混乱。开头段就开始论述问题，第二段提出建议，结尾段又给出原因，逻辑混乱不清，抓不住重点。所以我们在写文章时一定要先打腹稿，明确行文结构和大概内容，这样在写作过程中才不至于不知道说什么，甚至瞎写一通。

总而言之，新大纲非常强调大家的英语写作技能，我们在平时的备考过程中一定要多进行英文文章的写作，养成良好的写作习惯，注意单词拼写、语法检查、逻辑结构，这样写出的文章才能过关。

一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

二：删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call.

写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

英语写作注意两点

一、先审题，弄清写作要求审题是写好作文的前提，也是书面表达的基础。如果写偏了题，语言表达再好也很难得高分。审题时要注意两个方面：

1.认真地看两遍题目，包括提示，全面了解写作要求。

2.理清思路，确定体裁、框架结构和内容。

二、用英语进行思维英语写作时必须排除汉语思维的干扰。

从现在起应逐渐加大阅读量和听的输入量，将阅读、听力训练与书面表达有机地结合起来。经常体会和领悟作者传递信息和表达思想的方式。在话题讨论和写作中经常运用所学到的表达方式就会有所创造。还要尽量做到“五多”：多看、多听、多思考、多用心体验和感悟身边的人和事、多用英语说和写自己的体验和感受。

时间就像海绵里的水，只要愿挤，总还是有的。下面是语文迷为大家提供的关于时间的英语谚语，希望对你有帮助。

Time is money.

(时间就是金钱或一寸光阴一寸金)

Time flies.

(光阴似箭，日月如梭)

Time has wings.

(光阴去如飞)

Time consecrates: what is gray with age becomes religion.

(时间考验一切，经得起时间考验的就为人所信仰)

Time reveals(discloses) all things.

(万事日久自明)

Time tries all.

(时间检验一切)

There is no time like the present.

(现在正是时候)

Take time by the forelock.

(把握目前的时机)

Time is a file that wears and makes no noise.

(光阴如锉，细磨无声)

Time stays not the fools leisure.

(时间不等闲逛的傻瓜)

Time and I against any two.

(和时间携起手来，一人抵两人)

Time is life and when the idle man kills time, he kills himself.

(时间就是生命，懒人消耗时间就是消耗自己的生命。或时间就是生命，节省时间，就是延长生命)

Time spent in vice or folly is doubly lost.

(消磨于恶习或愚行的时间是加倍的损失)

Time undermines us.

(光阴暗中催人才。或莫说年纪小人生容易老)

Time and tide wait for no man.

(岁月不待人)

Time cannot be won again.

(时间一去不再来)

Time brings the truth to light.

(时间使真相大白。或时间一到，真理自明。)

Time and chance reveal all secrets.

(时间与机会能提示一切秘密)

To choose time is to save time.

(选择时间就是节省时间)

Never put off till tomorrow what may be done today.

(今日事，今日毕)

Procrastination is the thief of time.

(拖延为时间之窃贼)

One of these days is none of these days.

(拖延时日，终难实现。或：改天改天，不知哪天)

Tomorrow never comes.

(明天无尽头，明日何其多)

What may be done at any time will be done at no time.

(常将今日推明日，推到后来无踪迹)

Time works wonders.

(时间可以创造奇迹或时间的效力不可思议)

Time works great changes.

(时间可以产生巨大的变化)

Times change.

(时代正在改变)

Time is , time was , and time is past.

(现在有时间，过去有时间，时间一去不复返)

Time lost can not be recalled.

(光阴一去不复返)

Time flies like an arrow , and time lost never returns.

(光阴似箭，一去不返)

Time tries friends as fire tries gold.

(时间考验朋友，烈火考验黄金)

Time tries truth.

(时间检验真理)

Time is the father of truth.

(时间是真理之父)

Time will tell.

(时间能说明问题)

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、什么是自传

自传是叙述自己生平经历的文章。生平经历是指一个人生活的整

个过程。婴儿——幼儿——上学——现在

1、婴儿时期（吃、哭、爬、学说话、学走路……）

听妈妈说那时候的我是怎样的？（高、矮、胖、瘦、乖、闹、聪明……）例文欣赏

示例1：听妈妈说，小时候的我胖乎乎的，很聪明。刚到了九个月就会说话了，把妈妈叫得很开心；10个月就会学走路了，摇摇晃晃，东倒西歪但不让人扶。有一次从床上掉下来，至今胳膊上还留有伤疤；奶奶说我那时候特别乖巧，但也特别淘气。

特点：聪明、淘气

示例2：刚出生的我在医院里又哭又闹，说着平常人不懂的“外星球语”，让爸妈很苦恼，白天我咬着奶瓶呼呼大睡，晚上我就活跃起来，让大人抱着我到处去溜达，如果一松手，那哭声在你耳朵里徘徊，仿佛一栋楼都会震动起来！

特点：爱闹

2、幼儿时期

⑴、脑中充满疑问

“妈妈，天上的星星为什么会眨眼睛？”“妈妈，我的肚子为什么会饿？”“妈妈，为什么天上的月亮有时是圆的，有时是弯弯的？”⑵、探索世界

把家里的小闹钟、把我的玩具拆得七零八落

⑴、⑵表现出我很聪明

⑶、上幼儿园

哭着、喊着不肯上幼儿园这些表现出我又很淘气

例文欣赏

示例1：一眨眼的功夫，时间老人已把婴儿时期带走了，幼儿时期缓缓走来。妈妈和幼儿园的老师都说我好动。为此我觉得自己得了儿童多动症，其实我确实挺爱动的。在幼儿园里，我基本不会规规矩矩的坐上三分钟；就算坐在椅子上，也是东摇西摆。结果一次在课堂上“发挥”多动时，老师误以为我在吃东西，我的脸烧了又烧，简直就像一

只掉进油锅里的虾。

示例2：幼儿时期的我最爱跳舞。记得有一次，妈妈手机里传出了一阵响亮的歌声，在一旁搞东西的我听见了，便情不自禁的跳起来，屁股一扭一扭的，手也摆动起来，不时还走一下猫步，仿佛我已经沉浸在这欢乐地歌声里，无法自拔一样！一旁的妈妈鼓起掌来，笑着说：“看来我们家会有一位舞神了。”奶奶听后，大笑起来，家里充满了快乐的气氛。

3、我上学了

⑴、有了稳定的兴趣。如：①、爱上了学习②、迷上了阅读

⑵、进不了

⑶、交了很多朋友

例文欣赏

示例1：进入小学后，在优美的校园里，我感受到了学习的快乐，从此爱上了学习。现在，我是班里的学习委员、语文课代表。我的作文经常受到老师表扬，不仅在作文比赛上获过奖，还经常在一些刊物上发表呢！

示例2：八岁的我爱书如命。故事书、漫画书、作文书、科幻书、小说等等，不管什么书，我都一股脑儿拿起来就读。不管晚上作业有多少，事情有多忙，我都会挤出一点时间来看书。

我看书很着迷。我会随着书中的趣事哈哈大笑；也会为着书中令人落泪的悲惨故事而伤心痛哭；看到本领高超、助人为乐的人，我会产生敬佩之情；看到那些烧杀抢掠的恶人和那些贪赃枉法的坏人，我心中的愤怒油然而生……每当妈妈看见我忽而大笑、忽而大哭，忽而喜悦，又忽而愤怒时，总会无可奈何地叹息道：“这丫头，真是没办法！”

示例3：我进入了XX小学读书，在这座优美的校园里，我对学习有了比较大的变化，表现比较积极，一年级第一批就加入了少先队，四年级参加了鼓号队，曾经当过体育委员、语文课代表。在学习上能多看课外书籍，经常去剑英图书馆借书或去新华书店看书，同时注意积累好词好句，坚持每个星期写一扁日记，因此语文成绩比较理想，对作文比有兴趣，作文经常被老师表扬；数学成绩还算可以，但是英语一直是我的弱项，总感到压力好大。

示例4：我结交了很多朋友，他们也十分乐意和我交往，使我从交往中得到了许许多多的快乐。我对他人十分的诚实守信，从来不说恶意

的谎言，答应别人的事情绝对做到，因此，他们也很乐意跟我玩，和我谈心。我有时也会跟别人一起哈哈大笑或讲悄悄话，跟同学们打成一片，让我成为他们心目中的好朋友。有了他们我的生活充满了朝气，充满了快乐。我对人十分有礼貌，助人为乐也是我的本份，他人有困难，我一定会竭尽全力去帮助他。

4、现在的我

长大了、懂事了、学会承担了、有理想了。

例文欣赏

示例1：随着年龄的增长，我变得越来越懂事了。想起妈妈以前整天都为我操心，而我却总是惹她生气，我的心里真不是滋味。

星期五放学回到家，妈妈放下我的书包，就径直走进厨房准备做饭。我想：妈妈工作了一整天，已经很累了，又要去接我，回到家还要做饭，这多么不应该！想到这，我马上走进厨房。

“妈妈。”

“有什么事儿吗？”

“妈妈，您去休息吧，我帮您做饭。”

“不用了，你快去做作业吧，饭菜很快就好了。”

“妈妈，就让我为您做一顿饭吧，嗯？”

妈妈只好笑了笑，点了点头。

晚饭后，我又替妈妈把碗碟洗得干干净净，把家里打扫了一遍，最后还为妈妈捶背按摩。妈妈很高兴，对我说：“孩子，你长大了，懂事了，妈妈真高兴！”我听到这句话，心就像被浸在一罐世界上最甜的蜜糖里。

这就是12岁的我，懂事的我。

示例2：现在的我，会承担责任了；十二岁的我会像挤海棉一样挤时间了；十二岁的我，会自己面对困难了；十二岁的我，成熟了许多；十二岁的我已经长大了，一些鸡毛蒜皮的小事，我自己已经会应付了。面对十二岁的人生，我好像还有点混浊，但比起以前已经进步了许多。对于我来说，未来是一条坎坷的岔路，我一定要选择正确地道路，要一直努力认真的向前走。只要努力学习，就会考上重点大学。

二、行文线索

1、不懂事，爱哭、爱闹——有点听话——开始懂事

2、听话的乖孩子——爱学习的好学生——懂事、知道孝敬父母

3、淘气，耍小聪明——明白事理，大智慧

三、详略取舍

1、详写部分的选择：

⑴、记忆最深刻、最难忘的那段岁月

⑵、最能体现你这个人的特点

⑶、转变最大、成长最快的那段时期

2、其它部分可略写

四、开头和结尾

㈠、开头：

1、简要的介绍自己

2、对自己有一个粗略、整体的评价

例文欣赏

示例1：本人名叫陈思婷，属龙，2000年11月18日，伴随着一阵哭声，我从医院诞生了，胖乎乎的显得十分可爱，嫩滑的脸蛋上，有着一对小酒窝。长大后，我的皮肤黝黑，有人叫我“非洲黑珍珠”！我只好不好意思地笑纳！

示例2：2000年7月20日，随着一阵“哇哇”的哭声，一个可爱的婴儿来到了这个五彩缤纷的世界。从此，生活的大舞台上就有了我的小天地。我的小脚丫在小天地里任意的涂鸦，涂鸦成我难忘的昨天。㈡：结尾

1、对自己成长的总结

2、对未来的向往

例文欣赏

示例1：岁月如梭，整整12年过去了，我从不懂事的小孩子，变成了有志气的大姑娘，我希望，以后能改掉坏习惯，开心快乐地成长。示例2：比起小时的我确实是进步了很多，可是人生的道路是曲折而漫长的，学海无涯，我还有许多东西不懂，我想：只要有远大理想，带着顽强拼搏的意志和勇气走下去，就能够迈进成功的殿堂，就能对国家有贡献！

示例3：这就是我，一个有着多样性格的我。看完我的自传，你们喜欢我吗？

习作练习

我的自传

在写作活动中，作者对于客观事物的反映总是能动的、积极的。一篇文章的思想内容和艺术特色，不仅是作者某种写作意图和写作能力的直接体现，也是他整个人的思想、感情、阅历、个性特征、文化水平和个人风格的折光。所以人们常用“文如其人”来说明作者和文章写作的关系。加强作者自身的修养，全面地锻炼自己正是学好写作的根本条件。

首先，要锻炼思想，陶冶感情。鲁迅先生早在20年代就指出：“我以为根本问题是在作者可是一个’革命人’，倘是的，则无论写的是什么事件，用的是什么材料，即都是’革命文学’。从喷泉里出来的都是水，从血管里流出的都是血。”这就是说，作者的理想、情操和审美眼光，对文章的特色和价值是起决定作用的。对我们初学者来说，首先应该认真学习马克思列宁主义、思想和理论，树立科学的世界观和崇高的人生理想，积极自觉地参加各种有益于国家、集体或他人的实践活动，在广阔的社会生活中锻炼思想，陶冶感情，更好地增强自己的写作激情以及发现新事物、看出新问题的能力。

其次要积累生活，拓展知识。文章是客观事物的反映，生活是文章写作的源泉。文章的内容及其表达，和作者的生活知识储备有着密切的关系。生活阅历浅，知识贫乏，很难写出好文章。丰富的生活经验和广博的知识，不仅给作者提供了大量的写作信息，而且可以激发作者的写作欲望，充分调动作者的创造力和想象力，使文章写得更充实，更准确，更生动，更优美。我们要积极地投身生活，在生活的感知中积累经验，拓展知识，不断更新自己的知识结构，充实自己的头脑，为灵感的触发和文思的活跃提供更多的水源或燃料。

再次，要训练思维，提高智能。文章是客观事物的反映，但要根据客观事物制作成文章，还需要有多方面的智能。比如在认识和摄取客观事物时，作者需要有观察能力，发现能力，采集能力;在构思过程中，需要有综合、分析能力，筛选加工能力，想象能力和创造能力;在表达时，需要有结构能力，语言运用能力和修改能力。写作还需要有一定的技巧，技巧也是能力的体现。整个写作，要靠诸种智能和技巧的综合运用。在运用各种智能和技能的过程中，思维贯串于始终。写作正是以思维为核心组织各种能力和技巧的一种综合性智力活动。没有积极而富有创造性的思维，诸种智能和技巧难以发挥，写作对象也主很难如意地转化成理想的文章形式。为此，培养和发展思维品质，提高思维能力，正是发展智能、开拓思路、写好文章的重要一环，也是作者全面修养的一个重要组成方面。

多读、多写、多改，“在游泳中学会游泳”。

1、 博览，精读

写作和阅读不可分割。读写结合，从范文中借鉴，极有助于提高写作能力。古人说：“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“熟读唐诗三百首，不会吟诗也会吟”，“劳于读书，逸于作文”，这些经验之谈，是有道理的。

阅读对于写作的作用是多方面的。首先，博览群书，可以开阔思维，活跃文思。陆机说：“伫中区以玄览，颐情志于典坟。”他认为观察事物可激发文思，研读古籍也可以丰富文思。有些人写文章如行云流水，笔到之处，文意丰富，言辞自然，这和他读书多有极大关系。其次，阅读还可以吸取和丰富写作材料。从根本上说，写作中的材料都是取自社会生活，但一个人的阅历有限，不可能对宇宙间过去和现在的所有事物都去直接观察和感受。广泛阅读，则可以帮助我们了解自己不可能亲自去接触、认知的生活和知识，从而丰富自己的写作材料。第三，阅读又是掌握写作规律、学习写作方法的有效途径。别人的好文章读得多了，耳濡目染，便会懂得文章作法。鲁迅先生也特别提倡这一点。他说：“凡是已有定评的大作家，他的作品，全部就说明着‘应该怎样写’。”他称这为“实物教授法”。熟读名篇佳作，往往会从写法上加以效仿。读多了，效仿的次数多了，慢慢主会变成自己的方法，并能有所改进和创造。第四，阅读又可以丰富我们的词汇，提高运用语言的能力。一切古今中外名著，都是语言巨匠用提炼加工而成成的规范化的语言写成的，阅读名作，可以帮助我们更好地丰富语汇，了解更多的句式和修辞手法掌握运用评议的基本规律，提高运用评议的技巧。

2、 多写多练

写作方法和技巧的掌握，最主要的途径还是要靠自己的实践。凡是有成就的作者在谈写作经验时，没有一个不强调“做”字。清人唐彪对此有一段精辟的论述，他说：“学人只喜多读文章，不喜多做文章;不知多读乃藉人之功夫，多做乃切实求已功夫，其曾益相去远也。人之不乐多做者，大抵因艰难费力之故;不知艰难费力者，由于手笔不熟也。若荒蔬之后作文艰难，每日即一篇半篇无不可;渐演至熟，自然易矣。”他在另一段话里又说：“谚云，’读十篇不如作一篇’。盖常做则机关熟，题虽甚难，为之亦易;不常做，则理路生，题虽易，为之则难。沈虹野云：’文章硬涩由于不熟，不熟由于不做。’”这些话讲得都是极为中肯的。

练习写作，要端正态度，防止和克服一些不正确的思想。首先要有信心。初学写作，可能写不好，如同小孩子学走路，开始时总是要摔跤的，但走着走着，也就学会了。写作也是一样，开始写不好是正常的，关键是不要因此失掉信心。只要持之以恒，慢慢就会上路。一些写作上很有成就的文章家、作家，他们的文化程度原来并不高，开始时也写不好。但他们不怕失败，不怕别人讥笑，能从实践中总结经验教训，不断摸索，终而取得成功。

练习写作，要防止自卑或自负心理。有些人开始时劲头很大，但写一段之后就停下来，不是由于失败而自卑，就是由于自满而止步。这些都是提高写作能力的大障碍。鲁迅先生就：“一个作者，’自卑’固然不好，’自负’也不好;容易停滞。我想，顶好是不要自馁，总是干，但也不可自满，仍旧总是用功。”写作是一种相当复杂的精神劳动，想要一蹴而就，一下子就写出好文章是不可能的。“自卑”和“自负”都容易停滞、倒退，只有总是“用功”，不停的“干”，才能有所长进。

初学写作往往还有一种急躁情绪，一下子就想写长篇大作，而不注重基本功的训练。殊不知做任何事情都要注意打基础和练基本功。基础不牢，功底不厚，事情就很难办好，只有脚踏实地，由小到大，由简至繁，由粗到精，才能逐步掌握写作要领，真正有所成就。

3、 多听意见

文章是客观事物的反映。客观事物是复杂的，人们对客观事物的认识也要有个过程。只有深入思考，反复加工，才能正确、恰当地反映客观实际，表达好自己的思想感情。

修改是写作中的一个重要环节，是保证文章质量、提高写作水平的重要途径。有些人信奉所谓“一挥而就，文不加点”，写完后自己不看，不改，也不请教别人，这样就很难发现问题，更谈不到精益求精。有人是为了怕麻烦，写完了事，至于写得如何，他就不管了，这是一种不负责任的表现。它们都是提高写作水平的拦路虎、绊脚石。

修改文章，还要虚心求教，多听别人的意见。因为一个人的认识和能力总是有限的，只有躬身求教，博采众长，文章方能长进。古今中外许多大作家，不但善于向作家学习，还能向师友以及一般读者求教。相传唐代大诗人白居易“每作诗，令老妪解之，问曰：’解否?’妪曰：’解’，则录之，’不解’，则又复易之。”法国大作家莫里哀常把自己的作品读给女仆吃后悔药，每读完一部新作，女仆都称赞说写得好，莫里哀以为她文化低，是有意讨好主人。有一次，莫里哀故意把写失败了的剧本念给她听，结果女仆瞪大眼睛说：“这不是先生写的。”莫里哀听后非常震惊。可见文化低的人同样也能够鉴别文章的好坏。这里的关键是虚心，要有群众观点，放得下架子，才能得到有益的帮助。

重视写作基础理论知识的学习，提高以理论指导写作的自觉性，减少盲目性。

前面说过，写作是文章作者创造性的精神活动，也是社会性的文化现象。一篇文章的得失好坏，不仅决定于作者自身的个性、禀赋或努力程度，也和他对这一精神活动的客观规律以及与此相应的规范性要求的理解、把握程度有关。所谓写作理论，主要就是对于这些规律规范的概括和阐释。

有的同志轻视写作理念知识对于写作实践的指导作用，认为不学理念也可以写出文章，其根据是有的作家没有学习写作理念知识，也写出了很好的作品。这个看法是片面的。事实上，所有会写文章的人，都是自觉或不自觉地通过不同途径，在写作的规律性知识方面积累了较高理论素养或丰富的经验性体会的。有些人由于种种原因未能系统地学习写作理论知识，但他在练习写作的过程中，一定也阅读过许多范文，在这些范文中，就蕴含某些写作原理和规律，所以他也等于是在学习借鉴前人的写作实践中掌握了他们。同志在《实践论》中说过：“感觉到了的东西，我们不能立刻理解它，只有理解了的东西才更深广地感觉它。”系统的理论学习和具体的经验积累之较高的理论修养，自己在实践中就能自学地扬长避短，阅读别人作品也能更好地分辨精华、糟粕，对于写作能力的提高自然会有更大的帮助。

学习知识和理论，目的是指导实践，要在能力的转化上多下功夫。即使是对知识、理论掌握程度的考核，也就在把重点话如何运用知识、理念来分析问题、说明问题上面，而不以单纯地复述、背诵要领或条条为满足。再说，知识和理论的作用，主要在于说明写作活动自身的矛盾运动及其变化规律，帮助习作者端正学习态度，改进学习方法，而不可能提供什么一试就灵的仙丹妙药或是照搬不误的万能模式。

正因为如此，我们在重视学习科学的理论知识与前人成功经验的同时，还须与发挥自己独立的创造精神有机地结合起来。古人云：“文有大法无定法。观前人之法而自为之，而自立其法……不死，文自新而法无穷矣。”又说：“所谓法者，行所不得不行，止所不得不止……自神明变化于其中。若泥定此处应如何，彼处应如何，不以意运法，转以意从法，刚死法也。”今天我们同样需要有这样的学习态度和写作态度。