英语写作段落扩展的方法【汇编20篇】

文章的写作手法、表现手法之类的题型，是中考阅读中我们经常失分的题目，究其原因，主要是学生对什么是写作手法(表现手法)不清楚，因而在做题的时候觉得无从下手，以至于把写作手法与语言特点混为一谈，为使学生弄清楚写作手法与语言特点的区别，现把各种写作手法罗列在下面。写作手法的作用也附到后面，供同学们参考学习。有效提高中考阅读能力。

常见写作方法、表现手法：

联想、想像、象征(托物言志)、比较、对比、衬托、反衬、烘托、以小见大、借景抒情(情景交融)、伏笔和铺垫、前后照应(呼应)、直接(间接)描写、扬抑(欲扬先抑、欲抑先扬)。

作用分别如下：

1、象征(托物言志)：通过咏物来抒情，常常借助于某些具体植物、动物、物品等的一些特性，委婉曲折地将作者的感情表达出来。

作用：首先是它把抽象的事理表现为具体的可感知的形象。其次是可以使文章更含蓄些，运用眼前之物，寄托深远之意。

2、衬托：以他体从正面、反面两个角度陪衬本体。作用：突出本体的××特征。

3、对比：把两种相反的事物或一种事物相对立的两个方面作比较。

作用：鲜明的突出了主要事物或事物的主要方面的××特征。

4、借景抒情：通过描写具体生动的自然景象或生活场景，表达作者某种真挚的思想感情。

作用：做到情景交融，使文章充满诗情画意。

5、先抑后扬：先否定或贬低事物形象，尔后深入挖掘事物特点及内在意义，再对事物予以肯定、褒扬，作用：突出强调了事物(人物)的特征。

6、侧面(间接)描写：侧面烘托出该人物的××性格、品行和技能，使得文章结构更加集中紧凑，表达更为简洁精练。

直接和间接描写方法结合运用，可以使被描写的人物或景物的特点更加鲜明、突出。

7、伏笔和铺垫：作用：内容前后照应，情节严丝合缝。

8、照应：记叙文：使文章浑然一体，整体感强，突出主题。

议论文：强化××论点。 散文：反复地抒发××情感，增加情感的深度。

9、联想：由一事物想到另一事物的心理过程。

作用：丰富文章内容，使人物形象更丰满，性格更鲜明突出，情节更生动感人。

10、想像：在原有的感性形象的基础上，创造新形象的心理过程。

作用：为塑造形象、表现主题服务。使读者接受美的陶冶。

下面是由语文迷网小编精心为大家整理提供的英语句子，供大家写作参考。

1、Time flies.

时光易逝。

2、Time is money.

一寸光阴一寸金。

3、Time and tide wait for no man.

岁月无情;岁月易逝;岁月不待人。

4、Time tries all.

时间检验一切。

5、Time tries truth.

时间检验真理。

6、Time past cannot be called back again.

光阴一去不复返。

7、All time is no time when it is past.

光阴一去不复返。

8、No one can call back yesterday;Yesterday will not be called again.

昨日不复来。

9、Business neglected is business lost.

忽视职业便是放弃职业。

10、One today is worth two tomorrows.

一个今天胜似两个明天。

11、The morning sun never lasts a day.

好景不常;朝阳不能光照全日。

12、Christmas comes but once a year.

圣诞一年只一度。

13、Pleasant hours fly past.

快乐时光去如飞。

14、Happiness takes no account of time.

欢娱不惜时光逝。

15、Time tames the strongest grief.

时间能缓和极度的悲痛。

16、The day is short but the work is much.

工作多，光阴迫。

17、Never deter till tomorrow that which you can do today.

今日事须今日毕，切勿拖延到明天。

18、Have you somewhat to do tomorrow,do it today.

明天如有事，今天就去做。

19、To him that does everything in its proper time,one day is worth three.

事事及时做，一日胜三日。

20、To save time is to lengthen life.

节省时间就是延长生命。

21、Everything has its time and that time must be watched.

万物皆有时，时来不可失。

22、Take time when time cometh,lest time steal away.

时来必须要趁时，不然时去无声息。

23、When an opportunity is neglected,it never comes back to you.

机不可失，时不再来;机会一过，永不再来。

24、Make hay while the sun shines.

晒草要趁太阳好。

25、Strike while the iron is hot.

趁热打铁。

26、Work today,for you know not how much you may be hindered tomrrow.

今朝有事今朝做，明朝可能阻碍多。

27、Punctuality is the soul of business.

守时为立业之要素。

28、Procrastination is the thief of time.

因循拖延是时间的大敌;拖延就是浪费时间。

29、Every tide hath ist ebb.

潮涨必有潮落时。

30、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

31、Wisdom is more to be envied than riches.

知识可羡，胜于财富。

32、Wisdom is better than gold or silver.

知识胜过金银。

33、Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.

胸中有知识，胜于手中有钱。

34、Wisdom is a good purchase though we pay dear for it.

为了求知识，代价虽高也值得。

35、Doubt is the key of knowledge.

怀疑是知识之钥。

36、If you want knowledge,you must toil for it.

若要求知识，须从勤苦得。

37、A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.

浅学误人。

38、A handful of common sense is worth a bushel of learning.

少量的常识，当得大量的学问。

39、Knowledge advances by steps and not by leaps.

知识只能循序渐进，不能跃进。

40、Learn wisdom by the follies of others.

从旁人的愚行中学到聪明。

41、It is good to learn at another man’s cost.

前车可鉴。

42、Wisdom is to the mind what health is to the body.

知识之于精神，一如健康之于肉体。

43、Experience is the best teacher.

经验是最好的教师。

44、Experience is the father of wisdom and memory the mother.

经验是知识之父，记忆是知识之母。

45、Dexterity comes by experience.

熟练来自经验。

46、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

47、Experience keeps a dear school,but fools learn in no other.

经验学校学费高，愚人旁处学不到。

48、Experience without learning is better than learning without experience.

有经验而无学问，胜于有学问而无经验。

49、Wit once bought is worth twice taught.

由经验而得的智慧，胜于学习而得的智慧;一次亲身的体会，胜过两次的教师教导。

50、Seeing is believing.

百闻不如一见。

拓展阅读：段首万能句子

1. 关于……人们有不同的观点。一些人认为……

There are different opinions among people as to ____ .Some people suggest that ____.

2. 俗话说(常言道)……，它是我们前辈的经历，但是，即使在今天，它在许多场合仍然适用。

There is an old saying______. It"s the experience of our forefathers，however，it is correct in many cases even today.

3. 现在，……，它们给我们的日常生活带来了许多危害。首先，……;其次，……。更为糟糕的是……。

Today, ____, which have brought a lot of harms in our daily life. First, ____ Second,____. What makes things worse is that______.

4. 现在，……很普遍，许多人喜欢……，因为……，另外(而且)……。

Nowadays，it is common to ______. Many people like ______ because ______. Besides，______.

5. 任何事物都是有两面性，……也不例外。它既有有利的一面，也有不利的一面。

Everything has two sides and ______ is not an exception，it has both advantages and disadvantages.

6. 关于……人们的观点各不相同，一些人认为(说)……，在他们看来，……

People’s opinions about ______ vary from person to person. Some people say that ______.To them,_____.

7. 人类正面临着一个严重的问题……，这个问题变得越来越严重。

Man is now facing a big problem ______ which is becoming more and more serious.

8. ……已成为人的关注的热门话题，特别是在年青人当中，将引发激烈的辩论。

______ has become a hot topic among people，especially among the young and heated debates are right on their way.

9. ……在我们的日常生活中起着越来越重要的作用，它给我们带来了许多好处，但同时也引发一些严重的问题。

______ has been playing an increasingly important role in our day-to-day life.it has brought us a lot of benefits but has created some serious problems as well.

10. 根据图表/数字/统计数字/表格中的百分比/图表/条形图/成形图可以看出……。很显然……，但是为什么呢?

According to the figure/number/statistics/percentages in the /chart/bar graph/line/graph，it can be seen that______ while. Obviously，______，but why?

一、叙事记叙文写作指导

【教学目标】让学生学会准确运用书面语表达自己要说的话，选取一个生活事件或其中的一个片断进行记叙。

【教学重点】选取生活事件或片断进行记叙。

【教学难点】同上

【教学课时】四课时

二、写作指导

在 记叙文 写作中，叙述好一件简单的事，这是一项基本功。练好这个基本功，以后进行复杂的叙事，也就有了基础。德国大作家歌德曾经说过：“一个人只要能把一件事说得很清楚，他也就能把许多事都说得清楚了。”

●那么，怎样记叙好一件简单的事呢？

1、要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间；要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。

然而，交代这六个方面内容不应该呆板，要根据文章的需要灵活掌握。时间、地点也并不是非要直接点明不可的，有时候可以通过描述自然景物的特征及其变化，将它们间接表示出来。 如“鸡喔喔叫了起来”，就是指天将亮了；“西边的太阳就要落山了”，指的是傍晚，等等。

2、要把事情经过写具体，并做到重点突出。在 记叙文 六个方面的内容中，起因、经过和结果，是构成事情最主要的环节。为了把事情写得清楚、明白，在记叙中一定要写好事情的起因、经过和结果，特别要把事情的经过写具体，给人留下完整而深刻的印象。

3、记叙的条理要清晰。一件事都有发生、发展和结果的过程，按照事情发展的顺序记叙，文章的条理就会清楚明白。

确定记叙的顺序以后，还要安排好段落层次。适当地分段，可以使文章眉目清楚。要做到记叙的条理分明，必须在动笔之前，仔细地想一想，文章应该先写什么，再写什么，然后写什么，把记叙的轮廓整理出来。 写 记叙文 ，必须考虑哪些先写，哪些后写，安排好记叙的顺序，否则就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。

●那么，怎样安排记叙顺序才能使文章条理清楚呢？

1、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。 这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次（发生、发展、高潮、结局）。

2、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

3、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

有些同学看见别的同学写出一些好文章来，便惊叹道：“这些内容，我也熟悉的，怎么我没能把它们写出来！”这个问题值得深思，说穿了，那是因为你缺乏从小事中写出深意的能力。生活中，惊天动地的事情是少见的，一般人所经历的大多是平凡的、细小的事情。自古以来，好文章数也数不尽，大多写的也是平凡的、细小的事。《红楼梦》写的是封建社会大官僚仕宦家族中的生活琐事，这些生活琐事在那样的门第中可以说是平常又平常的了，但它反映的思想意义却是深刻的，成为举世公认的巨著。

●那么，怎样从小事中写出深意呢？

1、提高思想水平，训练一副见微知著的好眼力。

照相机能摄像，人的双眼也能摄像。然而人和照相机毕竟不同，双眼是带着感情去选镜头的。观察的人本身要有一定的思想水平，只有这样，才可能看到事情的里层，发现其中蕴含的深意。

2、深入思考、分析、挖掘、寻找出事情所蕴含的深意。

在日常生活中，要做到凡事多加留意，尽可能深入地去想一想，不只注意到它的表象，还要去挖掘它的本质，弄清它的来龙去脉。这样，就能有敏感的头脑和锐利的好眼力，挖掘、寻找出事情中所蕴含的深意。

3、把事情放在一定的背景中去写。

背景就是时代环境，指的是社会变迁和政治动态等。一件小事，孤零零地看，是不起眼的，如果把它和事情发生的背景联系起来，那就不寻常了。

4、“事”与“意”的榫头要对得合适。

从小事中写出深意来，容易犯的毛病是“事”和“意”的榫头对得不准，往往是主观上（意）想“深”，客观上（事）显得内容单薄。因此，我们在具体写的时候，避免在提示事情所蕴含的意义时候犯任意“拔高”的毛病。

有一篇题目叫《节日的早晨》作文，叙的内容是一家人愉快地吃早点的情形，结尾是： 吃完早点，我开了院门一看，只见人们穿着美丽的新衣服，三个一群五个一伙的，走向热闹的大街，走向光明的共产主义明天。

这段话的结尾处，犯有“拔高”文章思想意义的毛病。如果写好吃早点的情形，体现人民生活水平在共产党的领导下步步提高是可以的，可是将它和“走向光明的共产主义明天”联系在一起，那“事”和“意”的榫头就对得不合适了。

总之，我们只要提高自己的思想水平，对听到或看到的事深入地想一番，认识它的意义，鉴别它的价值，并把它放在特定的环境中去写，就能从小事中写出深意来。

不少同学的作文，不是写拾到皮夹子交公，就是写为抱小孩的妇女让座；不是写帮助同学补课，就是写送迷路的小孩回家……总之，尽是写一些人家写“烂”的材料。于是语文老师常常在他们的作文后面写上类似的评语：选材陈旧，希望今后选择新颖、独特的材料。

●那么，怎样才能选择到新颖、独特的材料呢？

1、从自己的生活中去找

不少同学看到作文题目，不是到自己的生活中去找材料，而是道听途说，或者是从概念出发去记叙、描写。记好人好事，总是写“拾皮夹”、“让座”、“为人补课”，不管此事自巳是否经历过，是否有感触。这样的内容，怎么会给人耳目一新的感觉呢？

其实，我们每个人居住的环境不同，兴趣爱好不同，经历的事情必然不同。能把自己那些与众不同的经历作为选材的内容，那么，你所选择的材料一定是自己独有的，新鲜生动的。

2、做生活的有心人。

常听一些同学说，我们是学生，生活贫乏，看不出有什么新鲜、独特的事情值得记叙。同学们生活面不广是事实，要扩大作文选材的范围，就要求我们尽可能地广泛接触生活。那么是不是我们同学生活圈子小，就没有新鲜、独特的材料可以写呢？不是的。只要做生活的有心人，就会有独特的材料让你挑选。住在城里的人，恐怕都见过老年人跳迪斯科吧？可是有的同学熟视无睹，竟然让这样的材料从眼皮底下悄悄溜走了。

3、选择新角度，让常见的材料放出异彩。

一般来说，同学们的生活圈子小，家庭、教室、操场。接触的人少，家人、老师、同学。同学们在作文时，所叙述的事往往是常见的。常见的材料中就没有新鲜的东西吗？不是的。只要我们开动脑筋，对常见的材料改变一下叙述的角度，也会让它放出异彩。

4、打开思路，扩大视野。

有相当一部分同学，思路比较狭窄，他们的目光只注意好人好事，作文的材料老是不能扩大。如果我们同学把观察的目光投射到整个生活里，既看到那些好人好事，也看到那些坏人坏事，作文的材料一定会丰富多采起来。

法国巴黎艺术馆里，陈列了一座伟大的文学家巴尔扎克的雕像，奇怪的是：他的雕像却没有手。他的手呢？是被艺术家罗丹用斧头砍去了。罗丹为什么要砍掉巴尔扎克雕像的双手呢？原来，在一个深夜里，罗丹好不容易完成了巴尔扎克的雕像，非常满意，连夜叫醒了他的学生来欣赏雕像。他的学生把雕像反复地看了个够，后来，目光渐渐地集中在雕像的手上：巴尔扎克的那双手叠合起来，放在胸前，十分逼真。学生们不禁连声地说：“好极了，老师，我可从没见过这样一双奇妙的手啊！”罗丹的脸上笑容消失了。他突然走到工作室的一角，提起一把大斧，直奔雕像，砍掉了那双“完美的手”。

罗丹的雕像是要表现巴尔扎克的精神、气质，现在那双手（次要部分）突出了，人们看了雕像，只欣赏手的完美，而忽略了主要的内容。所以，罗丹砍掉了雕像的双手，以突出雕像所要表现的意义。

雕塑是这样，写作文也是这样，只有围绕中心安排详写和略写，叙事的重点才能突出。

●那么，在记叙的过程中，怎样妥当地安排详写和略写呢？

1、事情的发生和结果要略写，事情的发展过程要详写。事情的发生阶段，往往是交代时间、地点、人物，以及起因，事情的结果部分，往往是写出事情的结局或点明事情的中心。它们在整个事情中，或者说在整篇文章中，仅仅是枝节部分，所以要略写。事情的发展过程，是整个事情，或者整篇文章中的主体部分，它往往具体体现中心思想，因而要详写。

2、有点有面地叙事，“面”要略写，“点”要详写。有点有面地叙事，“面”上的内容往往是渲染气氛，交代背景，起烘托的作用。“点”上的内容往往是文章的重点。直接体现中心思想的，所以要详写。这里需要说明的一点是：在文章中，重点突出详写的部分时，不能忽视略写的部分。略写虽是寥寥几笔，但运用得好，可以对文章重点的突出、主题的表现，起到“绿叶映衬红花”的作用。

一篇文章，好比一架运转正常的机器，文章中的一个个段落就好比机器中那些大大小小的零件，这些零件不仅相互照应，而且那些大零件需要小零件把它们连接起来。文章里的段落也需要相互照应，也需要一些“小零件”，即过渡段和过渡句把它们自然、紧密地连接起来。 不然，文章就会显得支离破碎。所以，写文章时，一定要注意段与段之间的过渡和照应。

一般说， 记叙文 在下面几种情况需要过渡：

1、由这件事转到另一件事时需要过渡。

2、记叙的时间发生变化时需要过渡。

3、由倒叙转入顺叙时需要过渡。

4、运用插叙时的起止处需要过渡。

●一般来说，插叙内容写完以后要注意与原来的叙事线索衔接。叙事中的照应有三种情况：

1、文题照应。在叙事过程中，我们所写的内容务必切题，要和文章的标题相照应。

2、首尾呼应。文章的开头和结尾遥相呼应，可以使文章结构紧凑。

3、前后照应。在一篇文章中，前面的内容和后面的内容要互相照应。

总之，过渡和照应，是叙事文章中必不可少的，我们在作文时千万不能忽视。

写文章应该怎样开头？怎么结尾？谁也不会带着这个问题去问警察，因为警察不是教语文的，跟他关系不大。然而有一则外国幽默，却说有人向警察请教作报告的诀窍，而这个警察终于谈出“门道”来了。

现将全文摘抄

有人向警察请教作报告的诀窍，警察说：“作报告时，首先要有信心，报告的开头要像逮捕犯人一样，富于戏剧性；报告中间要像审讯犯人一样有条不紊；报告的结尾要像宣判一样简洁明快。”

看了这则幽默，同学们可能会捧腹大笑，有的笑那个“向警察请教作报告”的人，是向聋子借听力，是向盲人问路；有的笑那个警察是：“不懂装懂，胡说八道。”其实，那位外国警察谈的作报告的诀窍也一样适用于写文章，所谓开头要“富于戏剧性”，就是说开头要漂亮；所谓结尾要“简洁明快”，就是说结尾要干脆有力。

●做到“开头漂亮”的主要途径是：

1、叙述好事件的起因。如《边线》作文，开头这样写道：“大扫除刚结束，不知哪个‘缺德鬼’把一小团废纸扔在五年级的走廊上。”文章的开头便是军军和牛牛争吵这件事的起因，具有夺人眼目的力量。

2、描写环境，烘托气氛。如《风》作文，作者一开头就描写了风的猛烈：“走在路上，风要把我吹得飘起来。”甚至“前面路口的大杨树被风刮得东倒西歪，发出‘唰唰’的响声……”文章的开头交代了上学路上的恶劣环境，正是为了适应表达中心思想的需要，也增强了感染力。

3、激人兴趣，引人入胜。如《一堂有趣的自然课》，作者开头就写道：“清脆的上课铃声刚止住，马老师就抱着一大堆毛皮子、丝绸帕、玻璃棍和橡胶棒等东西，快步走进了教室。”马老师究竟要干什么？难道你不想看下去吗？

4、开门见山，点明题旨。如《“雷锋”来到运动场》作文，作者开头写道：“学校十三届田径运动会结束了。在总结会上，老师和同学们纷纷赞扬一位不知名的‘雷锋’。”这样直截了当，一下子把读者注意力吸引到中心思想上，起到总领全文的作用。

●做到“结尾有力”的主要途径是：

1、把事件的结局交代清楚。如《一堂有趣有自然课》，是这样结局的：

下课铃声响了，当同学们恋恋不舍地放下手中的实验时，一个个不由自主地埋怨道：“怎么搞的，这节课时间这么短！”

这种顺着情节的发展，以事情的终结作全文的结尾，干净利落，不枝不蔓，事情结束，文章也就结束了。

2、语言含蓄，发人深思。在 记叙文 中，作者以独特的认识和理解，写下深刻含蓄的结语，力求意味深长，发人深思。

3、结尾同开头呼应。结尾照应开头，能使文章结构谨严，浑然一体。

4、篇末点题，突出中心。篇末点题，尤如画龙点睛，这“睛”点得好，会使全篇顿生光彩。画龙点睛式的结尾，能帮助读者悟出全文的深意，给人留下深刻的印象。

三、写作台阶训练一

叙事如何生动具体。

1．教师指导、示范（以"记一次打架"为例），让学生明确叙事要生动、具体，必须做到以下几点：

A、交待清楚记叙的六要素。

B、对场面要进行观察、描写。

2．学生训练：题目：《发生在班里的一件事》

处理方法：

（1）分学习小组进行。

（2）以小组长为中心，确定所选的事件，定好后，小组成员展开讨论，讨论问题：

A、我们可以写这件事的哪些方面，（如当时的情况，人们的心理等）

B、对这些方面我们如何去写。

3．教师抽查一两组的讨论情况。

四、台阶训练二

开头、结尾训练：

1．教师讲述常见的开头、结尾方式。

2．学生书面写《发生在班里的一件事》的开头、结尾。

3．抽读优生的作示范。

4．范文欣赏（全篇）

五、大作文训练

题目：发生在班里的一件事

要求：1、字数在500字以上。

2．要有适当的议论、抒情。

3．叙述事件要生动、具体。

4．书写工整。（因升中考卷面分4分，所以每次作文均要求书写工整）

书写求职信的技巧：

1.表现自我的个性及特质——建议使用积极正面的陈述方式。

2.文章不可冗长——控制在总共四段、每段五行以内。

3.前瞻性的气魄——具有勇于突破与开创气质的人是外商公司的最爱。因此并不需要对之前辞职的原委做太多的解释。

4.少用第一人称——为了避免流于自大与主观的缺点，尽量少用第一人称。

求职信中的主要内容：

第一、说明你从何处得知这个工作机会

这是最基本的部份。一般来说会将媒体广告的名称改用别的字体书写或用底线加以标记。

第二、自己的学历、工作经历。

这是为了补充简历介绍的缺点，更具体的介绍自己的特点、能力。

第三、自己的工作能力能够胜任这份工作

这里要重点写，自己可以根据求才广告的内容，将自己的能力及特点体现出来。但不要太过吹嘘，这样到面试时一样会被否认掉。

第四、最后的感谢语

在最后的一段要写对公司或面试官的感谢语，体现你的真诚与修养。让面试官和招聘公司对你留下好的印象。，自荐信写作方法

英语写作要拿高分其实并不是很难，只要掌握了一定的词量以及写作方法就有可以能拿到高分。下面是语文迷为大家整理的英语写作高分秘诀，希望对你有帮助。

一、中考英语写作的概述

你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗?实际考试中，许多学生却常常有“无话可说”的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态，取得高分呢?

归根到底这是一个英语基本功——单词、短语和句型的问题。

英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升，必须进行多次的写作练习。因此，必须合理地设置训练步骤，遵循从初级到高级，从简单到复杂的原则去练习，经过一段写作实践之后，写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点：1、内容要完整。2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。

二、中考英语写作的评分标准

1、老师拿到的标准

写作水平的高低和文章的好坏，分数是最直接的评分标准，也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准?什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章?

评分标准：

(1)整篇作文满分20分，其中内容8分，语言8分，结构4分。

(2)内容贴切，句子流畅，用语准确，加整体印象分1分。

(3)不满60个词，少1——5个词扣0.5分，6——10个词扣1分。

(4)所有给出问题涉及的三项内容，每少一项扣3分。

(5)每个拼写，大小写，标点符号等错误扣0.5分;同一的拼写错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

(6)语法错误每项扣1分，同一错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

2、老师想看到的标准

语言(8分)：

词——固定搭配、高频重点词汇;

句——复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子!

内容(8分)：(总、分)论点、论据支持句;简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。

结构(4分)：

语言结构——句子重点突出、内容清晰;

内容结构——论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系;

句数控制——对于相对内容的句数掌握;

亮点、出彩点——排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。

三、扣分

内容方面：要点缺失，可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“Iwanttodosomethingformyschool”，若没有写一件具体的事情，是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻，没有实际内容，也会扣1-2分。

字数：少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上，标点符号不算，少了就要扣分。

但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看，16分以上的作文，没有少于75字的，甚至少于80字的也少之又少。

当然，也极少有超过100字的，因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个，在格子下面大约还有2行的空间，可以加20字左右，再多阅卷人就很难看清了，也会影响卷面的美观。

所以，同学们如果想让作文得到高分，最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

语法和拼写错误：每个扣0.5，重复错误不计;

标点错误：每4个扣0.5。

四、加分

作文的组织结构分。就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。只要文章中有1个亮点，基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点，是可以提前准备的。

“万金油”式的复杂句型，例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等，只要同学们多操练几次，几乎是一定能用到作文当中，从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分。很多家长(微博)和同学，尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学，都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项，但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验，在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的，而是在第一遍读完全文之后，心里已经形成了一个“印象分”，然后再细读第二、三遍，把印象分分配到各个打分部分。

因此，这个“印象分”就非常重要，而同学们的书法，也正是在这个环节，影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生，如果书法不好，一定要注意。

围绕话题，对课内相关事例进行归纳整理，密集有序的进行组合，如：

大海，我问你，你感受过人类的渺小吗?古代的君王，都要向你祭拜。你的一个巨浪就能吞噬一艘船和上面的生命。可你是否知道渺小的人类的顽强。人类，是所有陆生生物中惟一敢于真正向大海挑战的。架起船帆白布，穿梭于海面上，为了生存，人类向大海索取衣食之本。当老人在海上与鲨鱼搏斗三天三夜，辛苦所得尽入鱼腹时，他仍没有屈服。渺小的人类啊，从不会被表面上宏伟庞大的事物所征服。当麦哲伦在海洋上绕地球一圈，当特里斯特号潜入世界最深的马里亚纳海沟，当科学家奋勇前往百慕大探索，大海，你可以看到，人类并不惧怕你，他们已能自由地在海上放歌了。

——《面朝大海》片段

这一段概述了语文读本中的《老人与海》与历史课本中的几个事例，很好地表现了作者“面朝大海”时的深邃思考。

建议：平时学习中注意对课本与读本中的相关信息进行归类整理，围绕几个专题进行专题整理归纳。如以“在逆境中成长”为话题，可将教材中司马迁《报任安书》、史铁生《我与地坛》、《合欢树》、奥斯特洛夫斯基《钢铁是怎样炼成的(节选)》、海伦·凯勒《假如给我三天光明》、霍金《邂逅霍金》等身残志坚并有所成就的优秀人物事迹、名言归类整理，并高于课本，对他们所体现出来的精神作更深层次的思考

1、Practice makes perfect.

熟能生巧。

2、Take care of the pence/pennies，and the pounds will take care of themselves.

积少成多。/小事谨慎，大事自成。

3、Swift to hear,slow to speak.

多听少讲。

4、Procrastination is the thief of time.

拖延就是偷走时间。

5、Tomorrow is another day.

明天又是新的一天。/明天还有指望。

6、Exploit to the full one’S favorable conditions and avoid unfavorableones.

扬长避短。

7、Promise little，but do much.

少许愿，多做事。

8、cripples learns to limp.

近朱者赤，近墨者黑。

9、Bend the willow while it is still youn.

修树要趁早，育人要趁小。

10、Knowledge is power.

知识就是力量。

11、Passion，though a bad regulator,is a powerful sprin.

激情虽难驾驭，却是强大动力。

12、Learn from other’S strong points to offset one’S weaknesses.

取长补短。

13、He than run fast gets the rin.

捷足先登。

14、We never know the worth of water till the well is dry.

井干方知水宝贵。

15、Our greatest glory consists not in never failin9，but in rising every time we fall.

人生最大的光荣，不在于永不失败，而在失败还能站起。

16、Ideals are like stars-we never reach them，but like marlners，we chart our courses by them.

人之需要理想，如水手之需星辰；星辰虽不可及，但可指引我们航程。

17、Youth’s stuff will not endure.

青春易逝。

18、A pet lamb makes a cross ralTl.

宠坏的羊羔会变成恶羊。

19、Prepare for the worst and hope for the best.

做最坏的准备，怀最好的希望。

20、Do not throw the baby with the bath water.

别把小孩和洗澡水一起泼掉。

21、Wisdom is only found in truth.

惟有在真理中才能找到智慧。

22、A stitch in time saves nine.

小洞不补，大洞吃苦。

23、An hour in the morning is worth two in the evenin9./The morning hour has gold in its mouth.

一天之计在于晨。

24、Where there is a will，there is a way.

有志者事竟成。

25、Broaden one’S scope ofknowledge and widen one’S horizon.

拓宽知识，开拓视野。

26、He that can have patience can have what he will.

惟坚韧者始能遂其志。

27、Thought is the seed of action.

思想是行动的种子。

28、As you give，as you receive./As you sow，you shall mow.

种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。

29、Every man is the master ofhis own fogune.

每人都是自己命运的主人。

30、Good health is the best treasure a person can procure.

健康是一个人最宝贵的财富。

31、Disappointment is the nurse of wisdom.

失败是成功之母。

32、The first step to knowledge is to know that we are ignorant.

走向知识的第一步是知道自己无知。

33、Home-keeping youth have ever homely wits.

孩子不见世面，知识少的可怜。

34、People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

自己有缺点，勿揭他人短。

35、Give me where to stand，and l will move the world.

给我一个支点,我可以跷起整个地球。

常用写作方法帮助你高考作文获得高分的技巧

高考作文是非常重要的一个试题，是高考语文拉开分数的题目之一。记叙文是高考作文常考的文体，掌握一定的记叙文写作技巧是得高分的必要手段。下面文章为大家介绍高考记叙文的写作技巧。

一、一线串珠

内涵：记叙文的线索是贯穿全文、将材料串联起来的一条主线，它把文章的各个部分联结成一个统一和谐的有机体。如果说丰富而生动的材料是一颗颗珍珠，那么线索就是将这些珍珠串联起来的一条线。

记叙文的线索主要有实物、人物、事件、时间、地点以及作者的思想感情等。无论采取何种线索，都必须从表现文章的中心思想和体现各种材料之间的内在联系出发，灵活巧妙地确定。这是高考记叙文的写作技巧之一。

二、以小见大

内涵：就是以小题材表现大主题的方法。生活中有些材料看起来似乎很平常，却包含了深刻的意义。

“一滴水也可以反映太阳的光辉”。只要善于透过现象发现本质，小材料同样能反映深刻的主题，所以以小见大也是高考记叙文的写作技巧。在写作中对形象进行强调、取舍、浓缩，以独到的想象抓住一点或一个局部加以集中描写或延伸放大，以更充分地表达记叙文主题思想。这种艺术处理以一点观全面，以小见大，从不全到全，给写作者带来了很大的灵活性和无限的表现力，同时为读者提供了广阔的想象空间，获得生动的情趣和丰富的联想。

以上内容是对高考记叙文的写作技巧的介绍，希望能够给同学们提供帮助。高考作文光有技巧也不能成就高分，所以，同学们在平时应该多阅读优秀文摘，注意词句积累，临摹好的写作手法，并且在复习过程中经常进行写作练手。

微小说的的阅读情趣常常通过因果式突变、误会式突变、双线式颠覆、空白式象征进行酝制和营造。小编收集了微小说佳作与写作方法，欢迎阅读。

微小说是指在140字的微博篇幅里具备了小说各要素的微型小说。微小说的的阅读情趣常常通过因果式突变、误会式突变、双线式颠覆、空白式象征进行酝制和营造。

因果式突变

什么是因果式突变?按小说的写作规律，小说的艺术描写要落实到人物细节、情节细节上，凡进入到小说描写范围的细节，都是通过艺术地提示细节与细节之间的因果关系来产生小说的审美特点和阅读情趣。微小说、闪小说、小小说的艺术描写，因篇幅的限制，它们更加讲究在140、600、1500字的篇幅里着力写好若干个小说细节，它们的作者常常在描述这若干细节时要艺术地揭示和表现这若干个细节之间的因果关系，而这些小说细节之间的因果关系一旦明确、明朗就会产生一种艺术的突变，140、600、1500字的小篇幅瞬间呈现小说细节之间的艺术突变就形成了微小说、闪小说、小小说等的意外结局及小说审美阅读情趣。

微小说(1)：《我远不及你》。二年级八班，他递纸条给她：做我女朋友好吗?她接过纸条的瞬间眼里闪过一丝犹豫后随后将纸条递给了坐右边的她，他一脸惊讶却什么也没说。六年后她参加他的婚礼，新娘敬酒：“其实我一开始就知道纸条不是给我的，谢谢你。”她微笑回应：“其实在那之前我就知道你是真心爱他，我远不及你。”

只有140个字篇幅的微小说，也能写出很纯、很美、很感人的爱情故事，也能写出人的一种命运、一种个性和一种精神。女主角把他求爱的纸条在“一丝犹豫后”递给右边的她(一个动作细节);6年后，女主角参加他的婚礼，已成为新娘的她点破当时递求爱纸条的秘密并表达她对女主角的真诚谢意，而女主角回应说：“我知道你真心爱他，我远不及你。”人物的语言细节把女主角善良、真诚、并热心为他人着想的美德“立在”纸面了。如果说6年前女主角的“谦让爱情”是“果”的话，那么6年后的语言细节则是产生这个“果”的“因”。用最简洁的语言将人物的行动方式(果)与行为动机(因)做微小说式的叙述，这个“因”一旦点明，情节的发展与故事的结局发生了突变——原来女主角并不是不爱他，而是认为她比自己更爱他。这就是突变情节带来的意外结局。

微小说的因果式突变有3种方式：有像《我替你找到大学了》那样的开头细节和结尾细节形成(A——-A)式的矛盾相反的艺术突变。有像《民国最老剩女》那样的开头细节和结尾细节形成(A——AA)式相同的并是倍增扩大的艺术突变。还有像《只是在你眼里很特别》那样的开头细节和结尾细节发生(A——B)式的不同方向的艺术突变。

微小说(2)《我替你找到大学了》：高中男孩和女孩原本令人羡慕的一对，但有一天男孩出了车祸，离开了女孩。女孩伤心了，却没有和任何人哭诉。此后她加倍学习，考上了重点大学，有的同学不解的以为女孩没有感情。但是当女孩踏进大学的第一件事，就是照了一张和大学校门口的照片，并在背后写道：“你向往的大学，我替你找到了”。

微小说(3)《民国最老剩女》：张茂渊，张爱玲笔下最精致智慧的女人，也是她的姑姑。她是海归，有丰厚遗产有高收入。1925年，25岁的她在赴英轮船上与李开弟一见钟情，可李已有婚约，于是她开始52年的等待。文革中她与李开弟一起照顾备受摧残的原配，十几天衣不解带，原配去世后，78岁的她与李开弟结婚，13年后去世!

微博(4)《其实我很普通，只是在你眼中很特别》：他在公司第一次注意到她，是因为她左手拇指上涂成红色的指甲。他脑海中天马行空的想象又开始不停的琢磨她。为什么涂红色?为什么单单一个手指?慢慢的，他开始对她感兴趣，一点一点接触着她。她的特别充斥着自己满满的好奇心，一来一往他们在一起了。结婚那天，她问他为什么会爱上自己。他很诚实，告诉了她那个红色指甲的事情。她突然大笑起来说：“傻瓜，那是朋友买指甲油我帮忙试用而已。”笑着笑着她又哭了，她说，“其实我很普通，只是在你眼中很特别。”

微小说(2)一开头就说高中时的男孩和女孩原是令人羡慕的一对，因车祸男孩死了，而女孩好像不哭泣、没感情，但最后女孩考上大学后第一件事就是在大学的校门口照一张相说：“你向往的大学，我替你找到了”。这种告慰死去男孩的方式实际上是告诉读者：女孩不是没感情，而是把感情深埋于心，把思念当作人生进取、前进的动力，这就是提示了开头细节与结尾细节的因果关系后形成的(A——-A)的相反的艺术突变。

微小说(3)是纪实微小说。它用140个字的篇幅写出人一生等待了52年的爱情。这篇作品只选取了张茂渊一生中4个时间节点的材料：1925年25岁的她与李开弟一见钟情;文革中的她与李开弟一起照顾原配;78岁时终于和李开弟结婚;婚后13年她91岁时去世。张茂渊对爱情的坚守、坚持创造了一个人世间感人的爱情传奇。以上两个微小说故事让我们看到百字小说的篇幅也能写出人的一生或者一段较长的历史，并按时间节点在精选的材料里，要艺术地透露、揭示或点破各“时间节点上的细节”之间的因果关系，只有把叙述文本里的细节建立起了“情节的因果关系”才能产生“小说味”。这3个时间节点上的故事实际上把张茂渊的爱情元素做了极致的(A——AA)式的倍增扩大。它的艺术突变可以理解为一种同向的变化放大到了极致，形成一种“斜升式爆点”的艺术效果。

微小说(4)的开头细节是他以为她只涂一个红指甲很特别，但结尾当他们因这个特别而接近、结合后才最后提示真相和原因：她并不特别——她只是替朋友试用指甲油，这就是让我们想不到的是另外不同的原因而形成的(A——B)式的艺术突变。这个艺术突变的故事实际上是概括了生活中许多同类的男女间一见钟情、男女间“情人眼里出西施”的生理、心理的真实过程。

误会式突变

什么是误会式突变?小说中的两个人物都有着自己的生活、自己的个性、自己的故事，但在微小说、闪小说、小小说的同一个故事情境中交汇，双方发生了误会，而且这个误会在故事叙述的前五分之四的篇幅并不暗示和写出，这个误会还有可能因若干个细节的渲染会被进一步扩大，等到小说的高潮出现，误会被消除时，读者才突然醒悟，原来这是两个人物的误会，完全是两种思维、两种情感在定的情节场面里发生有情趣的误会，小说的艺术突变和阅读情趣就是通过消除误会后实现了。微小说《钱包在我这》《熏死人了》《你给我咬开》是误会式突变的典型案例：

微小说(5)《钱包在我这》：一对情侣在公园游玩，无意中发现后面跟着一个衣衫不整的老人。女孩拉着男友说：“快走，后面有要饭的”，老人紧跟不舍。女孩想：天啊!这么难缠，于是停下脚步冷冰冰地对老人说：“没钱!” 老人笑了。“我知道你没钱，钱包在我这呢”。

微小说(6)《熏死人了》：我们领导有一宝贝独生女儿……中午领导就躺在沙发上看电视，看着看着睡着了……这时候，他突然感到一个小被子给他盖上了。一阵暖流拂过心间。觉得女儿果真是爸爸的贴心小棉袄啊，养女儿真是没白养啊。然后在这美好的感动中……听到女儿跑过去跟她妈妈悄悄地说:“妈妈，爸爸的脚真臭啊，受不了……不盖住熏死人了……”

微小说(7)《你给我咬开》：本人幼师一枚，和小朋友们相处融洽，他们总是偷偷给我零食，有一天班里一个平时很抠门的孩子，拿着一根火腿递给我，我心里特开心因为他从来都没给过任何小朋友零食，我暗喜：还是我在他心里有分量!赶忙用又温暖又含糖量很高的声音说：老师不吃了你吃吧!他很淡定的说：你给我咬开!

微小说(5)女孩把老人紧跟自己误认为是“没钱的、要饭的”，但老人却是一个送还钱包的好人。微小说(6)爸爸以为女儿给自己盖被子是“贴心小棉袄”，但女儿给爸爸盖被子的原因却是嫌爸爸的脚臭“熏死人了”。女主角的真正的人物动机和男主角人物行为是典型的误会。微小说(7)里的老师满以为班里的小朋友给自己送火腿，没想到小朋友不是给老师送火腿而是要老师帮忙“给我咬开”。这些误会的瞬间解除，构成了小说结尾的情节突变和意外结局。误会式突变的情节值得注意的是，它们常常是在某一个生活细节和物品细节发生误会的构思格局，当误会解除时，细节与细节之间并没有形成因果关系，而是发现和顿悟：两个人物、两种情感——是互相平行的两条生活规迹，仅仅是“误会”才把暂时地建立虚拟的艺术联系。

双线式颠覆

什么是双线式颠覆?“双线式颠覆”有两条故事情节，因小说篇幅的限制，这两条线索做了一明一暗的艺术处理，也和误会式突变的小说情节不同，它们不会是在某一个物品上产生误会式联结，当明线、暗线各自发展到高潮时，明线的故事真相会瞬间颠覆读者想像中的暗线的故事，颠覆读者预测的立意，而形成对小说故事真相的新顿悟、对小说人物性格、命运的新理解。来看微小说案例：《对不起，没关系》《可我愿意等你长大》《一张陌生女子的合影》。

微小说(8)《对不起，没关系》：他是她楼下送煤气的，每月帮她换气，他喜欢她，她知道。彼时她年轻貌美，追求者众。一天家里大火，他冒着生命危险救了她，因毁容，她昔日追求者无踪。唯他不离不弃，娶她。五年后，他们乘坐旅游巴士发生事故，他护她，头部重创失血过多而死，弥留时他说：对不起!她说：没关系!

微小说(9)《可我愿意等你长大》：高二，她问他：“老师，我可以爱你吗?”他笑，“傻孩子，你还小”。大学毕业后，她长大结婚，他寄来份贺礼，人没到。二十年后，他因病去世，她参加他的葬礼，才知道他终身未娶。三十年后，她搬家时无意发现高中时的作业本，最后一页有一行醒目的字：可是我愿意等你长大。

微小说(10)：【一张陌生女子的合影】妻子整理房间时发现了一张丈夫和一位陌生女子的合影照片，便询问丈夫是怎么回事。丈夫不以为然地说：“这是五年前和女友的合影，早已经和她断绝关系了。”妻子大声地说：“难道去年我才给你织的毛衣，五年前你就穿上了?”

微小说(8)里读者通过作者的表层暗示而想像出来的另一版本的故事完全颠覆了故事的表层叙述。微小说(9)里面两条线索的故事更明显，高二的女生想爱老师而被老师有效地引导而考上大学并健康成长，而老师却终身未娶，20年后病逝。30年后女生在自己的作业本的最后一页发现了老师的留言。老师的真爱和等待被女生错过了，而老师的形象、个性、情感却因这最后一句的揭示而鲜活、生动起来。老师的深层故事颠覆了女生表层的故事。微小说(10)的最后一句话是颠覆表层的故事，为读者想象男主角平时的言行、个性提供了一个丰富的空间。

空白式象征

什么是空白式象征?如果说因果式突变是在两个以上的小说细节实体创建它们的因果关系，如果说误会式突变是在解除两个实写的细节之间的误会，双线式颠覆是让一条故事真相来刷新、取代另一条故事实体，由此来制造艺术突变和意外结局的话，那么空白式象征的小说情节则是另一细节、另一情节在小说叙述中根本不出现，它是一个没有实体的空白，一个完全供读者想像的空白。而小说文本实写的这一个细节，这一个人物，这一个故事却成为这一类细节、这一类人物、这一类故事的象征和概括。

微小说(11)《永远跟不上你的距离》：相恋两年，不管是上学放学，还是一起逛街。他总是风似得在前面走。而她，要一路小跑，才能跟得上。终于的终于，她累了。“我们，还是适合做朋友呢。”她说道。“为什么?你不爱了吗?”他使劲抓着她的肩膀问道。她笑了笑，“爱，很深。但，你的脚步，是我永远跟不上的距离。”

微小说(12)他爱她，但一直羞于说出口。有一天，他请她帮讲道题，成绩优异的她轻松解答。他要回座位时，她拉住他的衣角说：我给你讲题没啥好处啊?他问：什么好处?她说：请我吃饭吧。他问去哪吃。她轻声说：哈根达斯。

微小说(13)：“我因车祸而失明，所以我从不知女友长什么样。那年，她得了胃癌，临终前她将眼角膜移植给了我。我恢复光明后的第一件事就是找她的照片，然而我只找到她留给我的一封信，信里有一张空白照片，照片上写有一句话：“别再想我长什么样，下一个你爱上的人，就是我的模样。”

微小说(11)实写的是她总是跟不上他的步伐。“跟不上步伐”实际象征了女性与男性在爱情生活中的距离。这个“距离”可以象征为男性的工作方式、生活方式、情感方式因过于超前，过于走得快而与女性产生差距导致男女两性间的矛盾与冲突。微小说(12)只实写了女主角要男主角到“哈根达斯”请她吃饭，“哈根达斯”是青年男女谈情说爱的场所。女主角没有说出来的爱情表白，被“哈根达斯”所代表的爱情地点、场所象征了。所以表面上不讲的深层故事和立意却被表层的故事象征了，小说的审美信息至此被扩大、延伸了。微小说(13)的表层故事是女主角爱男主角的2个独特的细节(照顾失明的他、为他捐角膜)，但这个已建立了因果关系的细节象征了真正的无功利的爱情与双方模样没有直接的关系，表现了当代比较新潮的爱情观。她究竟是个什么模样呢?这里面就有了3个版本的故事：第一，她的样子可能很丑。如果这样，立意就是相貌对爱情不是起关键作用的要素。第二，她的样子可能很美。那么，作品的立意就是创造一个外表美和心灵美统一的人。第三，她的相貌可能很一般，这就告诉我们：人的爱情心理中可能有一见钟情的类似“情人眼里出西施”的心理因素。这些由作品的省略叙述而造成空白式象征使微小说的内含的审美信息量得到了多种版本的开掘。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

电视剧是一种适应电视广播特点、融合舞台和电影艺术的表现方法而形成的艺术样式。小编收集了关于电视剧的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

第一节

剧本基本理论：

态度——写故事最重要的是对故事的态度，不同的态度会产生不同的效果。

主题——在下笔写故事之前，你必须要问自己：你要讲怎样一个故事?是朋友之间的友情，男女之间的爱情，外星入侵地球的故事，还是控诉战争的故事等，这就是主题。

主题必须明确、贯彻、毫不怀疑。一套成功的剧本是要观众看完后，清楚明白作者想表达的思想和主题。

第二节

创造角色冲突

角色冲突是吸引观众的不二法门。这包括故事角色和角色之间的冲突，角色和他自身价值观的冲突等。

方法一：故事里的人物想做一些事情，但有一股力量抗衡他 方法二：不能分解的关系

第三节

创造表面张力

方法一：让你的观众知道一些事而故事中的角色是不知道的。

方法二：让你的观众感到故事中的角色是走在一条错误的路上。

方法三：时间限制

方法四：转折点——使用转折点能制造意外效果，引起观众的预期心理，加强情节的张力，从而持续观众对故事的兴趣。转折点最常出现于故事的前段和后段。剧本前段的转折点一般用于开启故事和陈列出主角即将面临的各项选择。至于后段的转折点则指向主角解决危机，收拢故事。

第四节

其他技巧

伏笔：埋下伏线可以吸引观众追看剧情。

关键匙：就是最能象征整个故事的对象。

蒙太奇：有两个画面，梅花间竹地播出，这就是蒙太奇。蒙太奇亦可以指一些不同而没有关系的画面，当它们剪接在一起时，会产生另一种意义。

第五节

剧本三大忌：

写剧本变写小说：剧本写作和小说写作是两样完全不同的事。写剧本的目的是用文字去表达一连串的画面，所以你要让看剧本的人见到文字而又能够实时联想到一幅图画，将他们带到动画的世界里。小说就不同，它除了写出画面外，更包括抒情句子，修辞手法，和角色内心世界的描述。这些在剧本里是不应该有的。

用说话去交待剧情：剧本里不宜有太多的对话(除非是剧情的需要)，否则整个故事会变得不连贯，缺乏动作，观众看起来就似听读剧本一样，好闷。要知道你现在要写的是电影语言，而不是文学语言，只适合于读而不适合于看的便不是好剧本。所以，一部优秀的剧本，对白越少，画面感就越强，冲击力就会越大。

故事太多枝节：很多人写剧本都写得太多枝节，在枝节中有很多的角色，穿插了很多的场口，使故事变得复杂化，观众可能会看得不明白，不清楚作者想要表达什么主题。写剧本有一句格言：Simple is the best!愈简单的故事就越好。但是，简单永远是最困难的：Simple is difficult.

感谢信是重要的礼仪文书，是向帮助、关心和支持过自己的集体（党政机关、企事业单位、社会团体等）或个人表示感谢的专业书信，有感谢和表扬双重意思。一方受惠于另一方，应及时地表达谢忱，使对方在付出劳动和贡献后得到心理上和精神上的收益，它是一种不可少的公关手段。

感谢信是得到某人或某单位的帮助、支持或关心后答谢别人的书信。感谢信对于弘扬正气、树立良好的社会风尚，促进社会主义精神文明建设有着重要意义。根据寄送对象不同，感谢信可以分为三种：一种是直接寄送给感谢对象，一种是寄送对方所在单位有关部门或在其单位公开张贴，还有一种是寄送给广播电台、电视台、报社、杂志社等媒体公开播发。

【格式写法】

感谢信的结构一般由标题、称谓、正文、结语、署名与日期五部分构成。

1．标题。可只写“感谢信”三字；也可加上感谢对象，如“致张子鸣同学的感谢信”、“致平安物业公司的感谢信”；还可再加上感谢者，如“赵明康全家致××社区居委会的感谢信”；

2．称谓。写感谢对象的单位名称或个人姓名。如“××交警大队”、“刘自立同志”。

3．正文。主要写两层意思，一是写感谢对方的理由，即“为什么感谢？”二是直接表达感谢之意。

（1）感谢理由。首先准确、具体、生动地叙述对方的帮助，交代清楚人物、时间、地点、事迹、过程、结果等基本情况；然后在叙事基础上对对方的帮助作恰贴、诚恳的评价，以揭示其精神实质、肯定对方的行为。在叙述和评价的字里行间要自然渗透感激之情。

（2）表达谢意。在叙事和评论的基础上直接对对方表达感谢之意，根据情况也可在表达谢意之后表示以实际行动向对方学习的态度。

4．结语。一般用“此致敬礼”或“再次表示诚挚的感谢”之类的话，也可自然结束正文，不写结语。

5．署名与日期。写感谢者的单位名称或个人姓名和写信的时间。

【基本要求】

1、感谢的事由概括叙述感谢的理由，表达谢意。

3、写清对方的事迹：具体叙述对方的先进事迹，叙述时务必交待清楚人物、事件、时间、地点、原因和结果，尤其重点叙述关键时刻对方给予的关心和支持。

3、揭示意义：在叙述事实的基础上指出对方的支持和帮助对整个事情成功的重要性以及体现出的可贵精神。同时表示向对方学习的态度和决心。

4、结语：写感谢信收束时表示敬意的话、感谢的话。

5、落款：感谢信的落款署上写信的单位名称或个人姓名，并且署上成文日期。前者在上，后者在下。

【注意事项】

内容要真实

评誉要恰当感谢信的内容必须真实，确有其事，不可夸大溢美。感谢信以感谢为主，兼有表扬，所以表达谢意时要真诚，说到做到。评誉对方时要恰当，不能过于拔高，以免给人一种失真的印象。

用语要适度

叙事要精练感谢信的内容以主要事迹为主，详略得当，篇幅不能太长，所谓话不在多，点到为止。感谢信的用语要求是精炼、简洁，遣词造句要把握好一个度，不可过分雕饰，否则会给人一种不真实、虚伪的感觉。

【感谢信与表扬信的区别】

两者都是对别人的某种行为的肯定与表扬。但侧重点不一样。表扬信是侧重表扬某人，表扬某人做了什么好事，可以不是当事人自己写；而感谢信则是表达对某人帮助的感谢，是当事自己写的。

【感谢信范文】

尊敬的ｘｘｘ领导：

我是ｘｘｘ驾驶员，20ｘｘ年10月24日下午，我在北海路与北宫东街路口附近办事时，不慎将随身携带的手包丢失，里面放有身份证、驾驶证、现金、银行卡以及部分重要资料，过了半小时发现后，再到原处去找，包早就不见了。正在我万分着急，并且对找回包不报什么希望的时候，驻地交警大队给我打来电话，告诉我包被一位女士捡到，并交到了交警部门，交警部门又根据包内信息联系到了我。领回我的包后，经过多方打听，才知道这位拾金不昧的女士是ｘｘｘ，事后，我想单独拿出现金表达谢意，但ｘｘｘｘ坚决不接受，并且一再表示这是自己应该做的。

今天，我怀着万分感激的心情，写这封信，不但是为了表达对ｘｘｘ的感谢，对她拾金不昧高尚行为的敬佩，也是为了表达对贵院领导的感激之情，ｘｘｘ之所以能这么做，正是得益于贵院领导的正确领导和大力倡导，得益于贵院有充满正能量的院风院纪和积极向上的医院文化。在此，向贵院领导和翟女士表示衷心的感谢和崇高的敬意，祝愿贵院的医疗事业蒸蒸日上、蓬勃发展，祝愿各位身体健康，事业顺利！

张X

20ｘｘ年10月27日

近几年来，抒情作文一直很热，那么抒情作文怎么写呢？下面是小编为大家整理的抒情作文写作方法，希望能帮到您！

真情实感是作文的价值所在，魅力所在;胡编乱造，弄虚作假，这是作文的大忌。在2001年各省市的中考作文试题中，直接写明要求有真情实感的就有很多，有的虽然在提示中没有写明，但在评分标准中非常强调。从作文教学的发展趋势看，对作文的真情实感的要求必定会进一步加强，特别是记叙性作文。那么，考场作文中如何才能表达真情实感呢?这里以2001年几篇优秀中考作文为例来具体谈谈。

(1)述亲身经历

写作需要生活，越是亲身经历过、体验过的生活，写在文章中往往就越真实，越感动人。在构思过程中，我们要尽量从自己经历的生活中筛选素材。作为中学生，生活经历也许并不算丰富，但只要认真回忆和筛选，再进行适当的加工和组合，就一定能找到具体的材料，写出充满真情实感的作文。《我发现爸爸老了》是南通市的一篇优秀中考作文，作者写的就是自己亲眼所见的情景：小时候，为了不让我一个人孤零零呆在家里，父亲将两条毛巾平铺在装满秧苗的筐上，用那根我熟悉得不能再熟悉的扁担挑着我，在泥泞不堪的小路上送走了我的童年。当时的父亲，身材魁梧，虎背熊腰，在村里是数一数二的壮汉子;如今，父亲原先那嘹亮清脆的号子声已失去昔日的雄壮，隐约间还夹杂着几丝沙哑，原先油亮的黑发现在已染上了霜色，原先红润的面庞在已渐渐变得土黄，原先笔直的腰杆也略显弯曲……由于都是亲眼所见，印象特别深刻，写出来就有真情实感。

(2)多细节描写

真情实感离不开生动的、典型的细节，细节的多少和真实与否，反映出作者对生活的体验程度，也直接关系到文章的真情实感。如果文章中都是些笼统的、概括的叙述，即使是亲身经历过的，也往往会给人不真实的感觉。细节不细，这个“不细”，就是指它的作用不小。《我喜欢童年的竹林》是荆州市的优秀中考作文，之所以说它有真情实感，就是因为它有生动具体的细节描写，如：伸出手，扶住竹竿使劲一摇，“哗啦”一声，雪花“簌簌”地如天女散花般地飘落下来，洒到我的脖子里，凉丝丝的，滋润我“咯咯”的笑声。又如：有时，我们从家里偷出绳子，牢牢地拴在竹子上，做成秋千。摇啊，荡啊，从秋千底下，摇出我心中的歌。这些细节，不但真实，而且写得也富有诗意。

(3)明人事要素

具体和真实是一对孪生兄弟，要使文章有真情实感，就必须写得具体。虽不能说凡具体就一定真实，但一般而言，具体的叙述往往更能让人信以为真。你简单地说某地发生一件抢劫案，听者不一定会信，假如你有鼻子有眼睛地说，把抢劫的时间、地点、受害人的单位或姓名及被抢劫的数量都说出来了，那别人就会相信。在作文过程中，要尽量写清楚相关的人事要素。人，主要是单位、姓名、年龄、相貌、性格等;事，主要是起因、经过、结果等。《为自己喝彩》是泉州市的中考优秀作文，第一段是这样的：我坐在座位上，手捧着《简?爱》，心无旁骛。忽然不知谁传来消息：“明天要体检了!”体检?我一愣，小心翼翼地探听：“测些什么?”同桌不以为然地说：“身高、体重，这些都免不了呗。”啊，我心里发虚，低头看看自己的“虎背熊腰”，想想矮矮的个儿，听着后排那两个瘦如麻杆、身材苗条的女生半真半假对自己的身段作着自我批评，真是欲哭无泪。这个开头，把什么人、正在干什么、发生了什么、问些什么、想些什么等，都通过对话介绍出来了。因而，给人真实的感觉。

(4)用生活语言

作文是用语言记录生活。作文虽然要对生活进行加工和改造，但必须力求保持生活的原汁原味，尽量有生活气息。用生活语言，就是要正确和准确地反映生活，生活是怎样的就写成怎样的，不要走样，不要变味。《我喜欢童年的竹林》一文中用了不少拟声词，仔细体味，你就会发现用得非常准确，如“哗哗”形容摇竹的声音; 用“簌簌”形容雪花飘落的声音;用“咯咯”表示我们童年快乐时的笑声;用“沙沙沙”表示风吹竹林时的响声……作者把生活中确实如此的声音准确地搬进了文章之中，让人读后自然就觉得亲切感人。用生活语言，还要特别注意人物语言，什么样的人物说什么样的话，老年人有老年人的语言结构和常用词汇，而老年人口中一般就不会有这样的词。语言要符合人物身份，要根据人物的身份、年龄、文化程度和性格特点等来写，尽量写出个性。

(5)露潜在意识

潜在意识，也叫潜意识，指的是人的深层意识，它与浅意识和表层意识相对，它是人最质朴、最本质的心理活动。之所以称“潜”，是因为它隐藏于思维的底层，不经意袒露出来。人类生活是自然界中最为复杂的现象，有许多人，在许多场合想到的意思，往往不能说，不便说，或者不该说，不敢说，有时是为了礼貌，有时是为了工作需要，有时是为了自我保护，想到的而没有说出来的话就是潜意识。每一个人都有潜在意识，而且要比浅意识活跃和丰富，但在作文时，它在很大程度上受到抑制，替代潜意识的往往是那些与心相违的浅意识，这样写出来的作文，当然就没有真情实感。因此，要想作文有真情实感，最好大胆一些，充分展露自己的潜意识，心里是怎样想的，就怎样写。《为自己喝彩》的后半部分有这样几句：晚上，我站在穿衣镜前细细地端详自己。不!我不要这张苦大仇深的脸，我拥有别人没有的优点，我上进、奋发、勇敢，知识填高了我，我有什么好自卑的呢?这几句话，一般人出国留学网是不会公开对人说的，但作者把它写了出来。心里想的就是这样，写出来当然就有了真情实感。

(6)拟相应情景

作文要尽量写自己经历过的事，但有时，从自己的经历中找不到恰当的材料，有时，必须对自己经历过的事作一定的加工和改造。换句话说，作文中的事并不是自己完全或真正经历过的。这能不能给人真情实感呢?应该说，虚构也能做到有真情实感，关键是要注意这两点：一是这种事，自己虽然没有经历过,但现实生活中必定会有，别人肯定经历过;二是要模拟相应生活情景，把自己置于其中，仔细地想一想：假如我在那个时间、那个场所，遇到那样的事会怎么样呢?如果写的是一位老年男子，那么，就不妨借助自己的外公或爷爷，从他们平时的表现中想一想：假如爷爷在遇到这种事时会怎么对待?如果所写的是中年妇女，那不妨借助自己的母亲或邻居的大婶，根据母亲等平时的性格特征和行为习惯，想一想：她会怎样处理这件事?模拟生活情景，转换人物角色，能使虚构的文章多一点真情实感。

一、检讨书开头（加粗红色字体部分）

尊敬的XX老师：

对不起，我错了。

我不能去奢求你能原谅我但是我希望你不再生我的气，我知道我不是个好孩子给你带来了很多的麻烦，我对我的过失向你表示无比的歉意。今天，我怀着愧疚的心情给您写下这份检讨书，以向您表示我对这次事件的不良行为的深刻认识和改正错误的决心！

二、检讨书中间部分一定要认真写自己所犯的错误和对错误的认识哦。

三、检讨书结尾（加粗蓝色字体部分）

平时我对这件事情的觉悟不深，在现在写检讨的同时，我真正意识到事情的严重性和错误！我这种行为还在同学间造成了极其坏的影响。我这种表现，给同学们带了一个坏头，老师非常关心我们，爱护我们，所以我今后要听老师的话，充分领会理解老师对我们的要求，并保证不会在有类似的事情发生。望老师给我改过自新的机会。老师是希望我们成为社会的栋梁，通过这件事情我深刻的感受到老师对我们那种恨铁不成钢的心情，使我心理感到非常的愧疚，我太感谢老师对我的这次深刻的教育。

我真诚地接受批评，并愿意接受处理。对于这一切我还将进一步深入总结，深刻反省，我保证以后的每一个晚上都不再有类似的事情发生！恳请老师相信我能够记取教训、改正错误。

四、最后是自己的署名和写检讨书的时间

这里的万能检讨书开头和结尾加起来都快有500字了，再加上你自己认真写点经过和认识，相信老师绝对不会为难你的。

化虚为实，化意为象，这样的作文是怎么写的呢?以下是小编给大家带来化虚为实写作指导，以供参阅，希望对大家有所帮助。

化虚为实写作指导

话题设计:

以“传统”为话题，写一篇不少于800字的文章，题目自拟，文体自选，标题自拟，不得抄袭。

话题点拨:

话题的特点：

分析历年高考话题作文的话题都有一个共同的特点：话题意义理性抽象，意义虚拟。1999年的高考话题“假如记忆可以移植”，“记忆”是虚拟抽象无形的东西，将无形的东西“移植”，2000年的高考题“答案是丰富多彩的”，“答案”是一个理性抽象的概念，“丰富多彩”也只能从主观上去感知;2001年的话题“诚信”是一个理性抽象的概念;2002年的话题“心灵的选择”，“选择”是摸不着看不见的东西，在“选择”前加上“心灵”的限定，使这个题目更加的虚拟抽象;2003年的高考话题“感情的亲疏与对事物的认知”，是近年来话题作文中理性抽象最明显的一个;2004年湖北省高考话题“买镜”也是一个动作 ，话题理性抽象。笔者繁复地去分析历年高考话题作文话题的特点，是为了说明理性抽象、意义虚拟是近年高考命题的一种走向，因此，对这种话题作文的构思与写作过程进行深度研究，具有深刻的现实意义。

技法的选定：对于意义虚拟的话题，我们认为只有采用化大为小，化虚为实的方法。通过有形的载体去展示无形的话题，才可能迅速破译话题，锁定作文的立意走向，选定相应的作文题材迅速成文，这种于细微处见精神的文章才血肉丰满，感情真挚，给阅卷者言之有物的感觉，自然能够给作文较高的分数。

技法的实质：化虚为实这种技法应该说是中国千古文章的一大技法。反观中国的唐诗宋词以及现代许多经典散文，无一不是化大为小化抽象为具体的实际运用。古诗词中的“借景抒情”“借物寓理”，无论哪一种技法不是将抽象的感情道理化解为可见可感的有形之物，从诗句的有形中品出无形，也就是创作者化虚为实，评阅才能化实为虚。借实在的物象去解读作者的主观感情以及深奥的道理。李白的《静夜思》把一种虚拟抽象的思乡感情幻化为一幅幅具体可感的画面，“床前明月光，疑是地上霜，举头望明月，低头思故乡”，借月抒怀;朱熹把读书的乐趣这种抽象的东西幻化为有形的画面，好像人们观赏多彩的天空，“天光云影共徘徊”，把抽象的理趣形象化了;茅盾的抒情散文《白杨礼赞》，作者对北方军民的赞美之情借有形之物“白杨树”曲折地表达出来了。化大为小化虚为实，这种中国几千年的传统技法，在虚拟类话题作文写法上涣发了生机。创新不上对传统的否定，而是在传统基础上找到一种新的生长点。化虚为实在话题作文写法上有意向地运用，就可锁定作文构思的大体走向，提高作文构思的速度。

化解的基础：千古文章意为本，对于虚拟的话题，我们应该学会分析，找出话题所蕴含的道理，以及可以提炼出的中心，用一句话明确的表达出来，或者是陈述句，或者是判断句，肯定什么，否定什么，只有观点鲜明，话题作文才可能写得成功。如何把话题概括成一句话的观点呢?我们认为唯有细化量化的材料才可能定型话题内涵，从而迅速用一句话概括出围绕话题的立场鲜明的主题。

2003年的高考话题“感情的亲疏与对事物的认知”，初拿起这个话题，似乎有些突兀茫然，然而只要抓装感情的亲疏”这些限定的部分，在自己的知识积累，生活积淀中找到相关的解读材料，譬如“情人眼里出西施”、“月是故乡明”、“感时花溅泪”、“任人唯亲”，从这些名句中我们就可以迅速破译话题密码， 解 读话题内容：“感情的亲疏对事物的认知有影响”，或者“不能让感情的亲疏蒙 着我们认知的眼睛”，从突兀和茫然中走向明朗与坚定。只有观点鲜明正确， 我们才可能化虚为实，搜寻一个个具体的材料支撑自己的观点。

化解的技法：把抽象的话题化解成可以加工成产品的原材料，也就是化虚为实的具体过程。

笔者以为在围绕话题所确定的观点鲜明之后，应该从如下几个大的方向去思考：走进人群;走进自然;走进社会;走进历史;走进文化;走进名言等方面去搜寻可以加工成产品的原材料，这些大的思考方面就可以说是话题的一级化解。在仔细琢磨这些大的思考方面的基础上，慎重地权衡哪一方面自己最熟悉，对话题的理解最深刻，我们便从哪一个方面去入手选择并组织材料，并不是要求写每一篇文章应该把这些方向都写到，也许从一个方面思考更容易把文章写得深刻透彻。譬如2003年的优秀作文《情感—认知—文化》与《我爱唐装》，从标题便可看到作文是从文化的角度去写作，角度小而新，这便是话题作文写作的化解，而我们中的许多作者八面出击，没有清晰的写作构思走向，往往导致文章隔靴搔痒，写得不深不透。

话题的分析:“传统”是一个理性抽象的话题，我们选用这样的题目，让学生具体地写作演练，便可让学生把这种方法学到手，以便在高考考场上灵活运用。艰苦朴素是传统，勤俭节约是传统，爱国主义是传统，尊老爱幼是传统，这些都是应该倡导的优秀传统，当然，并不是说传统的东西都是优秀的东西，还有许多不良的传统要摈弃。对于这样理性抽象的话题，我们只有引导学生化虚为实，化大为小，把其化解成一个个可以加工成产品的原材料，才可能把其方便地引进作文中。从而，文章构思的意向性强，构思速度快;从另一个方面讲，这样写出来的文章往往能够让人感觉其角度小，主题深，思维新。

化虚为实写作训练

[文题]

生活是美好的，人生是精彩的。仔细观察生活，认真体验生活，你能发现精彩无处不在， 它使人感动，给人启发，让人久久不能忘怀。

请以“精彩”为话题目写一篇800字左右的文章。

[写作指导]

这道话题作文几乎没有设置审题障碍，话题的内容和范畴比较宽泛，只要和“精彩”相关或相近的内容都可以写，可以写人生、自然、社会。对于我们的眼睛而言，不是缺少素材，而是缺少发现。只要我们仔细观察，用心体会，我们常常可以在生活的小事中，发现大的道理;在人们不经意的举动中，发现感人至深的真情。

人的情感、情绪总要受到客观环境的影响，并受到偶发事件的牵动和制约。明白这一点，我们来写“精彩”话题作文，首先就要调动生活积累，回忆起曾经让我们感动的人或事，情或景，并选取其中内蕴丰富，值得反复咀嚼、玩味的材料组织到文章里来。

从内容上说，本题可写伟人壮举，也可写凡人小事。写作应着眼于“化大为小”“化虚为实”技法的运用。比如写：

花开的精彩——一日，看见花开。是一颗墨绿的多刺的仙人球。早在两年之前，因为我曾被它的刺所刺痛，我将它置之窗外，不再理睬。更没曾注意过它何时出芽，何时孕育花开。只是那一日母亲突然告诉我：“仙人球开花了。”我惊诧地去看。一枝长长的茎伸出了浓墨色的表面，擎举着世界上最美的珍异，那是一朵如银如雪的花，有着世界上最娇媚的的花瓣，簇拥着一丛灿烂如金的淡黄色花蕊，仿佛是一只水晶打造的喇叭。

落日的精彩——夕日欲颓，酡红如醉，渐渐铺开，化去。天边的几丝薄云，随之点点浸染，向四边漫开。蓝天刹时映上了片片醉红，蔓延，扩散，半边天被渲染上淡淡的红晕，清远，诱人。江面点点金光，沉鳞竞跃。红彤彤的江水泛着涟漪，星星点点。远处几叶小舟，也被染上撩人心扉的酡红。风起，鳞鳞波光绚烂耀眼。而那丝丝的风，也似泛着梅红，暖暖的拂过面颊，水水的，滋润起我龟裂的心田。

生命的精彩——当汶川县映秀镇的群众徒手搬开垮塌的镇小学教学楼的一角时，被眼前的一幕惊呆了：一名男子跪仆在废墟上，双臂紧紧搂着两个孩子，像一只展翅欲飞的雄鹰。两个孩子还活着，而“雄鹰”已经气绝!由于紧抱孩子的手臂已经僵硬，救援人员只得含泪将之锯掉才把孩子救出。这名男子是该校29岁的老师张米亚。“摘下我的翅膀，送给你飞翔。”多才多艺、最爱唱歌的张米亚老师用生命诠释了这句歌词，用血肉之躯为他的学生牢牢把守住了生命之门。

化虚为实写作点评

[话题亮相]

阅读下面的文字，根据后面的要求作文。

在巴勒斯坦，约旦河流人伽里里海，海里有鱼儿游弋，人们在河边居住，鸟类在茂密的枝叶间筑巢，每种生物都因这个海而幸福。

约旦河流入另一个海。这里没有鱼儿欢跃，没有树木，没有鸟类，也没有儿童的欢笑。

这两个海彼此相临，又为何如此不同?

原来伽里里海接受约旦河，但决不把持不放，每流人一滴水，就有另一滴水流出，接受与给予同在。另一个海则精明得厉害，它吝啬地收藏每一笔收入，决不向慷慨的冲动让步，每滴水它都只进不出。

伽里里海乐善好施，生气勃勃。另外那个则从不付出，它就是死海。

巴勒斯坦有两个海，世上有两种人。

请以“接受和付出”为话题，写一篇作文。

要求：所写内容必须在话题范围以内。文体自选，立意自定，题目自拟。不得抄袭。不少于600字。

[话题解析]

写这个话题作文，首先，也是最重要的一点就是要注意审题。“接受与付出”是一对相反相对的概念，命题者把它们集中到一个话题里，用意就是要我们通过恰当的方式把二者有机勾连起来。比如，通过一分为二的分析，辨明那些时候、那些事物可以接受，那些时候、那些东西应该付出;通过写二者的互相转化，揭示出一定的哲理;通过质疑传统观点，提出新的见解，等等。由于材料的指向性很鲜明，强调应该“付出”，可能会有同学把文章的立意锁定于此。这样的文章，如果能将“付出”和“接受”进行比较也算扣题。但是，如果只字不提“接受”，那就是片面地理解了话题，不符合要求了。

“接受与付出”是一个抽象的概念。写作的策略应是“化大为小”“化虚为实”。可以通过生活中的具体故事或场景来表现对话题意义的理解。比如写自己学习滑冰，付出了摔倒甚至受伤后，接受了成功;写练习游泳，付出了呛水和疲惫后，成为了运动的健将。比如写蛹之化蝶、蝉之脱壳、雏鹰学飞，付出了艰辛和痛苦，却接受了新生，等等。

话题作文的话题不是作文的题目，只是所给的写作范围，不宜直接用话题做文章的标题。这个话题作文的题材广泛，形式也是自由的，可以写成记叙文、散文、议论文，甚至寓言、童话、短剧等。可以选择自己擅长的文体进行写作，充分发挥自己的写作特长，淋漓尽致地展现自己的才华与个性。当然，要使作文出彩，还要掌握拟题技巧，巧妙安排结构，综合运用多种表达方式等。

[借鉴例文]

我接受，我付出，所以我幸福

自小我就认为喝牛奶是一种骇人的举动，因为不能与牛宝宝争一个妈妈;自小我就喜欢听奶奶心满意足地给我讲故事，看那太阳把金灿灿的光芒洒向大地……爸爸妈妈都说我是幸福。是我幸福，还是妈幸福?奶奶说是所有人的幸福。

当我学会采石榴花当伞，学会拎水浇花时，妈妈就对我说，我拿着的是自然赋予的，拎水浇花是我送给大自然的。当我幻想自己在楼兰古城的大街上享受古朴，在西山醉饮落日，在威武的虎门追随林则徐销毁鸦pian时，妈妈就笑了，说，我想的是书赋予的，而思的是我送给书的……

就这样，我知道了接受和付出。

徜徉在生活中，我像一条游鱼，周围的水草很多。面对一个笑容，我会欣然接受，然后再回付一个笑容;面对一次问候，我会坦然接受，然后说一声谢谢。渐渐地，接受与付出成了我的习惯。不管是接受，还是付出，我觉得同样令人快乐……

就这样，我学会了接受与付出。

游到生活深处，人的心渐渐沉重起来，妈妈的话时时刻刻在耳边响起。不知不觉之中，为一些疲于利益的事付出了很多，像学习成绩，像获奖证书一类的事。看到妈妈爸爸每次拿到成绩单或者是荣誉证书时脸上的笑意，我终于明白奶奶那句话，我是所有人的幸福，这就是我接受爸妈给予的幸福之后，再付出赢来的幸福，真的，再辛苦也值得……

就这样，我理解了接受和付出。

如今，在考场上，我正在接受着考验，在这之前，我接受了父母爱的唠叨，老师期望的叮咛，现在，我有义务、有责任去付出，为我周围美好的一切而付出，因为我是所有人的幸福，幸福是所有人的。

【点评】

写“接受与付出”这样的话题作文，很多考生把它写成议论文，谈如何处理好两者之间的关系，强调接受的同时也必须付出。这样写是可以的，可实际上有的考生由于论据不充分，给人空洞说教之感;也有的考生居高临下，板起面孔训人，令人生厌。这篇文章可贵之处是，从自身经历、自我感受写起，真切自然，富有人情味道。文章中“就这样，我知道了接受和付出。”“就这样，我学会了接受与付出。”“就这样，我理解了接受和付出。”几个句子，揭示出自己思想认识过程。结尾写身在考场中的“我”正准备以自己的才智报答社会，幸福自己，也幸福所有人。全文很好地运用化虚为实，以小见大的表现手法，韵味无穷，具有很强的感染力。

1)议论文常用的方法议论文的方法有：举例论证、分析论证、引证论证、对比论证和类比论证。还有反证法，证明对方论点是错误的，自己的观点是正确的，从而驳倒对方。

2)议论文的要求

(1) 论点要正确、鲜明。

在论证中，无论是对正面观点的阐述，还是对反面观点的反驳，自己的论点都必须正确，鲜明，赞成什么，反对什么，必须鲜明地表示出来，不能含糊不清。

(2) 论据要充实可靠。

这就要求作者选择论据要典型，要真实可靠。只有充实的论据，文章才有说明力。

(3) 论证要合乎逻辑。

这就要求论证时，说理要严谨，推理要合乎逻辑。最常见的议论文结构是纵贯式，就是按提出问题、分析问题、解决问题的逻辑顺序来安排层次，即：开头(引论)→本论(正文)→结尾(结论)，也就是我们常说的“三段式结构”。

Challenge (向…挑战)Old Beliefs(信念,信仰)

There are many things in the world which are accepted as certain when they are not certain, and what an expert(专家) says or thinks must not be accepted or rejected(抛弃) hastily(急忙地). The following example may help to make us less rigid in our beliefs.

When helium(氦) is cooled to very low temperature, it forms an astonishing liquid which does not appear to agree with the laws of gravity. It can go upwards.(向上) If it is put into a bottle which is open at the top, it empties itself out of the bottle; and if an open bottle is stood in this liquid, the liquid will move up the outer (外部的)side of the bottle and run down inside it until the levels outside and inside are the same.

So anyone who is determined(坚决的,有决心的) to advance science must have a capacity(能力,能量) for original thought and for action based on that thought.

本文是三段式结构，用举例的方法进行论证。第一段提出论点，第二段举例加以论证，第三段得出令人信服的结论。本文论点明确，论据科学可靠，由此而得出的结论非常有说明力。

在写记叙文的时候，我们要有条理性，先要想好先写什么，后写什么，安排好记叙的顺序，不然就会头绪杂乱，条理不清。被吸收剂了2017年小升初叙事文写作方法，欢迎阅读。

一、运用顺叙。

顺叙，是按照事物发生、发展的先后次序进行叙述。这样写，可以将事物的发展过程，有头有尾地叙述出来，来龙去脉，十分清楚。运用顺叙写成的文章，它的层次、段落和事物发生、发展的过程是基本一致的。

顺叙有以时间为顺序的，有以事物发展规律为顺序的，也有以空间变换为顺序的。在叙事性的文章中，大多是以时间为顺序和以事物发展规律为顺序的。

按时间顺序进行叙述时，必须严格地安排好顺序，写清楚叙述的时间。现实生活中任何事情都不会突然发生，它总有一个发生、发展的过程。因此，作者常常要根据事情发生、发展、高潮、结局这一事情发展的规律来进行叙述，文章的层次也是清楚、明了的。

当然，有的文章事情比较简单，因而不一定非要写出事情过程的四个层次(发生、发展、高潮、结局)。

二、运用倒叙。

倒叙，就是把事件的结局或某个最突出的片断提在前面叙述，然后再从事件的开头进行叙述。

需要指出的是，运用倒叙的写法，必须注意交代清楚倒叙的起讫点，顺叙和倒叙的转换处要有明显的界限、必要的文字过渡。这些地方处理不好，会使文章脉络不清，头绪不明，影响内容的表达。

三、运用插叙。

插叙是指在叙述中心事件的过程中，由于某种需要暂时中断叙述的线索而插入的关于另一件事情的叙述。

需要指出的是，在运用插叙时不能打乱原来的叙述线索，要注意与上下文的衔接。这样，文章的结构不仅富有变化，而且叙述事情的条理非常清楚。

1、按顺序。可以

仿造单元里的课文，按照时间顺序（季节变化顺序）、空间顺序、观察顺序来写。

2、文章结构采用：总——分——总

（1）开头（总起）：

介绍你要写的地方的地理位置和说说它总的景色特点。

例如：《富饶的西沙群岛》的开头：西沙群岛是南海上的一群岛屿，是我国的海防前哨。那里风景优美，物产丰富，是个可爱的地方。

（2）中间（分写）：１、可以按照时间顺序、空间顺序或者观察顺序来写。

1、如按照观察的顺序来写（即按照作者的脚步的移动，目光的转移去移步环境）。最好按照方位的顺序写，在写的时候用上（东边、西边、南边、北边、东北角、西北角、东南角、西南角、前、后、左、右）这些词语。

2、如果写一个您去了很多次的地方，那里的景色你已经熟悉得不得了，您就可以按照（春、夏、秋、冬四个季节）或者（早上、中午、傍晚、晚上）不同的时间去描写它的景色美。

3、不一定所有景物都要写得详细，可以把你认为最美丽的2-3个最美的景物详细写，把次要的景物简单些，尽量做到主次分明、详略得当。

（3）结尾（总结）：总结这个地方给你的总体印象，写感受或者表达赞美之情。

《美丽的河滨公园》结尾：美丽的河滨公园就是这么美丽、有趣，我爱江滨公园，更爱我的家乡。

3、展开合理的想象，恰当地运用比喻、拟人、排比等修法写出景物的特点，使文章更生动。

四、范文引路：

I Learn English Like This

English is very important for us. Everyone wants to learn it well. My English is very good. How do I learn English?

First, I listen to the teacher and make notes carefully in class. I revise my old lessons and prepare my new lessons after class.

Second, I like speaking English withmy classmates, not only in classroom, but also on the playground. Its to improve my spoken English.

Third, I keep a diary every day to practise my written English.

Besides this, I often read English newspapers or magazines in order to enrich my knowledge on English culture.

英语对我们来说很重要，每个人都想学好英语。我的英语很好，那我是怎么学英语的呢?

首先，我上课认真听老师讲课，认真记笔记，课下我复习旧功课，预习新功课。

第二，我不仅在教室里，在操场上也一样喜欢和同学们说英语，这提高了我的口语。

第三，我坚持每天记日记来练习写作。

除此之外，我经常阅读英语报纸和杂志来丰富我的文化知识。

导语：在学习了老人与鸽子这篇文章后，可以从这篇文章中的写作方法上看出有什么值得学习借鉴的?小编跟大家分享一下!

写作方法属于艺术表现方法(即：艺术手法和表现手法，也含表达手法(技巧))，常见的有：悬念，照应，联想，想象，抑扬结合、点面结合、动静结合、叙议结合、情景交融、首尾呼应(也叫前后呼应)、衬托对比、伏笔照应、托物言志、白描细描、铺垫悬念、正面侧面比喻象征、借古讽今、卒章显志、承上启下、开门见山，烘托、渲染、动静相衬、虚实相生，实写与虚写，托物寓意、咏物抒情等。表达方式就是常见的叙述、描写、抒情、议论和说明。

“老人与鸽子”，可以写出老人养鸽的经过，可以写成--------------记叙文!

写出“老人与鸽子”是最好的搭配，从正反面去分析，可以写成------议论文。

“老人与鸽子”，鸽子可以为老人寄信，写成---------------------说明文

“老人与鸽子”，可以写老人与鸽子之间的感情，写成-------------抒情散文!

如果你情感丰富细腻，你可以写成-----------------------------------------诗歌!-----老人与鸽子!

好啦，以上就是老人与鸽子这文章中值得学习借鉴的写作方法，有没有种跃跃欲试的冲动呢!

提高GMAT写作水平，要从熟悉和准备GAMT写作入手，然后在结构规划上下工夫，提高机考打字速度，熟悉GAMT写作的要求和评分标准，还有就是注意写作的结构规划等。

首先是熟悉GMAT写作，就是要熟悉计算机化考试的模式。考生必须要提高打字的速度和准确度，就能大幅减少浪费在凝视键盘和删除修改上的时间;另外善于使用复制和粘贴也会对写作速度有所提高。GMAT写作分为Issue和Argument两个部分，每个部分时间均为30分钟，考虑到构思时间和字数要求，考生应将自己的打字速度至少保持在20~30词/分钟，并且尽可能提高拼写的正确率，从而避免频繁修改，这样对提高GMAT写作水平是功劳不小的。

熟悉GMAT写作的下一步就是熟悉GMAT写作对作文的要求与评分标准。考生要仔细阅读官方给出的判分标准和参考范文，尤其是对于范文的评价。通过分析上述材料，考生可以将自己的作文在日后和范文与标准多作比较，从而不断修改自己的作文，以使得写作水平日益提升。提高GMAT写作水平要慎重地考察范文的可靠性和客观性。

准备GMAT考试首先就是针对写作的准备，换句话讲，就是首先要提高自身的写作水平和语言表述。而针对提高GMAT写作水平的不仅仅是遣词造句的能力，更是衔句成篇的思路。考生首先要设法完善思路和框架，再去力求提高运用语言的技巧。