英语写作段落扩展的方法(最新20篇)

英语写作过程中我们经常会用到一些短语，下面请看语文迷整理的高级英语短语，希望对你有帮助。

1. feel frustrated (挫折的)/ discouraged

2. a precious (宝贵的) experience

3. raise / arouse the awareness of …

4. acquire knowledge and skills学习知识和技能

5. a growing /increasing tendency

6. have a desire for sth / to do sth

7. put sth into practice

8. be closely related to…与…息息相关

9. be essential to sb 对某人来说必不可少

10. in a society with more competitions and challenges / in a competitive society

11. be keen on… 热衷于…

12. broaden one’s horizons开阔眼界

13. a large variety of / a wide range of …

14. make one’s dream come true

15. lay a solid/firm/stable foundation for/in…为…/在…方面打下坚实的基础

16. listen to teachers attentively

17. make a practical plan

18. motivate sb to do sth

19. bury oneself into study埋头学习

20. our determination and efforts

21. express my gratitude to her sincerely

22. be strict with sb in sth

23. achieve the final victory

24. encounter/face some difficulties

25. neglect the disadvantages

26. With the great efforts we’ve made, …

27. enhance/improve his ability of singing

28. be optimistic about

29. hold the strong belief that…

30. I’m confident / I’m convinced that…

31. with iron will and perseverance

32. pursue one’s dream 追逐梦想

33. arouse one’s passion for…唤起对…的热情

34. resist the temptation of good food

35. change one’s original mind

36. spare no effort to do sth 不遗余力做…

37. redouble one’s effort 加倍努力

38. leave a deep impression on sb

39. turn to sb for help / advice

40. relieve/lessen/reduce/ease one’s burden

41. with time going by=as time goes by

42. cherish/treasure/value our lives

43. vary from person to person

44. a boarding school 寄宿制学校

45. What surprised me most was that…

46. cause severe consequences(后果)

47. pay their tuition/school fees/schooling

48. physically and mentally

49. Some in favor of it think that…., while others are against it, holding the opinion that…

50. Success stems from hard work as it can help us accomplish the goal we’re striving for.

51. establish a special fund to help the poor

52. its negative aspect/impact is also obvious.

几乎99％的面试都需要应聘者进行自我介绍。自我介绍是在规定的时间内向面试官简短的诠释自己各方面能力及与职位的适合程度的一个过程，需要面试者在此过程中高度概括，并且用自信语言表现出来。虽然是一个临场发挥的过程，但却是面试中唯一一个可以预先准备的“问题”。

自我介绍应该侧重于：

侧重于自身与工作相关的技能和教育水平

表露你对生活的侧重点

使雇主洞察到你的价值

让雇主了解你的成就

使雇主明白你是否有能力，是否有自觉能动性，能否很投入地工作

须有助于雇主判断你在多大程度上能融入公司的文化

自我介绍的内容应该包括：

你所申请的职称或职位

你的学历

曾经担任过的职务

适用于该工作的具体技能

相关的职业培训或实践

曾获得的荣誉或成就

你的目标

你的人生或经营理念

自我介绍的注意事项：

以事例（物）证明你所说的言论

中心突出，回答问题围绕并适合谋求该工作所需要的资格

言简意赅，一般不超过二、三分钟

介绍完以后，随即询问考官，是否他还需要知道其他的事

充满信心，声音洪亮

自我介绍的准备工作：

第一步：非常扼要地介绍一下你早年的背景情况：(你是在哪里长大的?)

有无任何有关父母/家庭的有趣或重大的事件可介绍？（如果没有，可略去这一部分）：

第二步：介绍自己所受教育情况：

第三步：介绍你的实践经历：

可以提一下自己在兼职工作中担任过哪些职位，说明这些职位能够使自己学到什么对现在应聘的工作有用的技能或经验。

第四步：对自己的长处进行归类

才智因素

包括：

天性方面（如“口才相当好”）

思维能力（如“我常能急中生智”）

知识与经验因素

包括：

很强的实践经验（如“是否参加过农药销售实践”）

其它卓越的经验（如“曾负责某区的规划图”）

个性因素

包括：

人际关系技巧（如“我爱管事，也不怕担负责任”）

助人的行为（如“我发现自己能够很快为周围的人所接受”）

动机因素

包括：

兴趣（如“我喜欢能使我保持活力、不断进步的工作”）

动机（如“我的目标是在两年后成为办公室主管”）

精力（如“我能长时间地工作而不感到疲劳”）

发言前

收集话题——看、听、读、回忆、思考。

发言的准备运动——在“题目、导入、主故事、主题、结尾”的发言架构和措词上下工夫。

1 做模版：不用找什么马思德，就拿几片范文，找几句比较拽的结构型句子，拼凑出一个你自己顺手的框架即可。不用到处找，也不用找很多，一个框架即可，当然，准备一些可以替换的词：比如recommendation替换conclusion.漂亮句子很多，但若水三千，我只掬一瓢饮。

2 找出主要的错误类型，每种写出一道两句经典的表述即可。

3 考时30分钟分三个阶段：一)12-15分钟，写出完整的第一段，三个征文段的topic sentence，和完整的末段。写第一段的同时就构思topicsentence,末段无非是重复结论和三句topic。这样的好处是结构已经完整了，你不用慌了。。二)13-10分钟，完成三段正文。我以前觉得这个很困难，后来想通了。无非是把这层意思说清楚就行。3句话就够了。也够长了。三)5分钟check.还一个作用时，是在前面没有完成，还有一个buffer,也不至于弹尽粮绝。

4 非常措施：考试万一时间不够，首段就抄原句;如果时间还不够，末段就cut-paste首段和topic 的文本，稍加修改即可。但是，结构是完整的。

5 gmat快速成文法的精髓和适用范围：精髓：看上去很美。适用范围：不想得6分的人(因为想的6分的人追求的是实际上也很美。如果运气好，可以的5分，运气不好，可以的4分。

导语：小编就高考英语广东卷写作题将由基础写作(满分15分)和任务型写作(满分25分)两节组成。为了更有效地备考基础写作题，需要搞清楚基础写作题的特点和对考生写作能力的要求。本文将探讨这两个方面的问题，并对备考给出一些建议，供考生参考。

一、基础写作题的特点

高考设置基础写作题目的目的是要检测考生最基础的书面语言表达能力，如用词的合理性、句子结构的复杂度、语法运用的正确性、信息内容的完整性、句子之间的连贯性等。因此，基础写作题与往年的书面表达依然会有很多相似点，但也会出现一些新的特点。

1. 写作题材贴近考生的学习和生活。历年来高考作文题的题材都非常贴近考生的学习和生活，如校园活动、校外见闻、交友、旅游，和考生有关的话题讨论等。可以预料明年高考写作题的题材还会在这些范围之内，并为所有所考所熟悉。

2. 写作的体裁主要是故事性描述和应用文。基础写作题的体裁主要有故事性描写和应用文写作两大类。命题形式可能是看图写故事、看图表说明、根据表格信息完成一封短信或一份通知这类的应用文等。

3. 内容呈现的方式具有半封闭性。作文试题逐步走向开放将是大势所趋。但是，基础写作题还只能是半封闭的，其特点是写作的内容是被规定了的，考生必须将文章所规定的信息点完整、全面地表达出来，但对于语言表达的方式、信息组织的先后秩序、需要补充哪些必要的信息等，考生又有一定的自主构思空间。

4. 用5句话表达。这是基础写作题与往年书面表达题最显著的不同点。往年是规定字数(100词左右)，句子的数量不作规定，所以很多考生为了不犯句法错误总是用一些简单句。而基础写作只能用5句话来表达题目所给的全部信息点，但所给的信息点与往年的书面表达相比并不会减少，所以，用5个简单句很难完成任务，必须使用复合句或并列句来综合多个信息点，而且还要照顾句子之间的衔接和语意上的连贯。从这一点来说，基础写作题对考生运用语言能力的要求大大提高了。

二、基础写作题提出的新要求

由基础写作题的特点可以看出，它对考生提出了一些新的要求。

1. 信息组织能力。笔者认为，信息组织能力包括信息归类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。对于题目所提供的各种信息点，考生首先需要依照一定的标准将信息进行归类，并初步计划将哪些信息放到同一个句子中;其次是将信息进行合理的排列，排列必须依照一定的标准，如时间顺序、空间顺序、因果关系、递进关系等;第三是选择信息表达的秩序，确定句子之间的先后关系，这既要考虑语法上能否衔接，还要考虑语意上的连贯。在组织信息的过程中，还要对某些信息进行必要的增删，使文章意思连贯、语言畅通、逻辑严密。

2. 运用复杂句子的能力。在整理和归类信息点之后，就需要正确地使用比较复杂的句子，综合地表达信息。复杂句子主要有三类：

第一类是复合句，包括含有名词性从句的复合句，含有定语从句的复合句，含有状语从句的复合句。

第二类是并列句，包括具有递进关系的并列句， 如由and，then，besides，in addition, furthermore，moreover, what’s more等连接的并列句，具有转折关系的并列句，如由but，however，on the contrary, after all等连接的并列句，具有平行选择关系的并列句，如由both…and…，as well as，as well，neither…nor…or，either…or…，not only…but also…等连接的并列句。

第三类是一些特殊句型，如使用强调句、倒装句、含有with复合结构的句子、there be开头的句子、以形式主语it开头的句子等。

正确地使用各种句型，不仅能够完成题目所要求的任务，还能使文章的句式变得丰富、行文更加流畅、中心和主旨更加突出。

三、基础写作题的备考策略

在基础写作的备考过程中，一方面要重视养成一些良好的写作习惯，如认真审题、巧妙构思、常写草稿、工整誊写、仔细核对等好习惯，另一方面在组织信息和训练复杂句子结构方面要多下些功夫。下面我们以“广东省普通高等学校招生全国统一考试广东省英语科考试说明”中的样题为例，探讨如何备考基础写作题。

第一节：基础写作(共1小题，满分15分)

假设你最近参加了由某电视台举办的中考生英语演讲比赛并获奖，该台准备组织获奖者去北京参加一次英语夏令营活动，下表是这次活动的时间安排和活动内容。

活动时间

7月15日-22日或8月15日-22日

活动内容

参加英语角 学唱英语歌曲

听英语讲座 表演英语短剧

看英语电影 教外宾学中文

【写作内容】

电视台现就活动时间和活动内容征求你的意见。请按照以下要求用英语以书信形式给予答复。

1. 选择适合你的时间并说明理由;

2. 解释你只能参加其中的两项活动(听英语讲座和教外宾学中文)，虽然你认为所有的活动都很有意义;

3. 说明你选择的理由：听英语讲座了解英美文化的信息;教外宾学中文因为2008北京奥运让越来越多的外宾想了解中国。

【写作要求】

1. 必须使用5个句子表达全部的内容

2. 信的开头和结尾已给出。

Dear Sir or Madame,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

【评分标准】

句子结构的准确性和复杂度;信息内容的完整性和连贯性。

由此我们可以看出，信息点的数量与往年的书面表达题相比并没有减少，要想用5个句子把所有的信息都表达出来，考生必须从以下三个方面进行备考：

1. 养成重视审题的习惯。虽然基础写作题是半封闭性的，但审题仍然十分重要。现以样题为例，谈谈如何审题：

思考的问题

样题分析

要写的文章主题是什么?(topic)

参加夏令营。

为什么要写这篇文章?(purpose)

电视台邀请参加夏令营，写信回复

要写文章的信息点有哪些?(information items)

选择的时间、参加活动的内容、解释为什么。

怎样安排信息点的逻辑顺序?(order)

说明要参加的活动并解释原因—→说明要参加的时间并解释原因。

动作是什么时候发生的(时态)?(when)

夏令营还没有开始，文章主要用一般将来时。

2. 提高组织信息的能力。组织信息的过程包括信息分类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。这些步骤看起来好像很繁琐，但对于中下成绩的考生来说，一步一步地思考这些问题是很有必要的。现以样题为例，说明该怎样组织信息。

信息分类

信息排列

信息表达

时间信息：两个时间段。

内容信息：6项活动。

选择信息：其中的两个活动及其理由。

夏令营的内容信息点排列：可以将自己要参加的两项活动放在前面，其它信息点可以略写。

作者的选择信息点排列：依照自己所参与的活动顺序逐项表述，紧接着给出选择的理由。

结合已经给出的头和尾，写作的顺序可安排如下：

很高兴被邀请(已给出)——感谢安排这么多的活动——说明活动的意义——表达自己只能参加两项活动的遗憾和原因——说明参加的活动内容及原因(两项活动用两句话)——说明自己选择的时间及原因。

3. 夯实基础，掌握基本的句子结构及其用法。对于大多数考生来说，用词不准和句子结构错误是写作失分的“罪魁祸首”。夯实基础、掌握基本的句子结构及其用法是基础写作备考的主要任务，完成这项任务可以分步骤进行：

第一步：练习写简单句，练就写简单句基本不犯语言错误的“真功”。简单句大体上可以分为两个基本类型，考生必须掌握：“主语+谓语+(其它成分)”“主语+系动词+表语”。

第二步：练习运用复杂句。要提高运用复杂句的能力，考生必须要攻克三个易错点：一是主句与从句之间主谓结构混乱，造成主句缺谓语;二是没有掌握关联词的用法，错用、多用、漏用关联词;三是该使用简单句的地方人为地复杂化，如可以用分词或介词短语来表达的，却偏要用从句。

下面以样题为例，介绍笔者是如何思考写这篇文章的(为了分析方便，笔者将5个句子进行编号)，仅供参考：

Dear Sir or Madam,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp. ①Thank you very much for arranging so many activities, such as English corner, English lectures, English films, English songs, English plays and helping foreigners learn Chinese. ②I am sure all the activities will do a lot of good to us students. ③But it’s a pity that I can only take part in two of them, because I will have to spend some time in doing my research project. ④I would like to listen to the lectures, by which I will learn more about western culture, and help foreigners learn Chinese, as more and more foreigners want to know about China and the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.

⑤I want to see my grandparents in the country right after our school finishes in mid-July, so I am going to attend the camp from August 15th to 22nd.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

第①句顺应已给出的句中的glad心情，表示感谢安排这么多的活动，具有较好的连贯性。同时很自然地将活动内容做一介绍。

第②句用简单句表达活动的意义，语意上连贯，句式上没有继续用“长”句，有变化。

第③句用but转折并用it’s a pity 句型表示委婉的歉意，然后解释原因。

第④句用一个长句子表达自己要参加的两个项目，并解释原因，解释原因的第一句用定语从句，第二句用状语从句，使句子结构富于变化。

第⑤句解释参加的时间并给出解释。之所以把时间放在后面，主要是考虑它与题目已经给出的句子之间在语意上的连贯性不够。

一写作的过程

无论是四级还是六级的写作，一般分为三个过程：构思、组织、表达。

1 构思。即：当考生拿到考题，看懂题目，在脑中整合与考题内容相关的内容。这时的素材往往是个别的，孤立的，很凌乱琐碎；

2组织。即把脑中的素材做出整理，使其条理、系统化。取舍素材的标准如下：第一自己是否可以准备的英文进行表达，第二整理的素材字数是否符合考试的要求。

3表达。即把组织过的材料仔细推敲，确无问题了再落笔成文。在撰写时要注意主谓语一致，时态呼应，用词贴切等。

四级真题如：“My most impressive friends”

首先我们的脑海里会想到许多让我们影响深刻的人物，即使不是朋友也没有关系。

其次，想到这些人发生了什么事情使自己印象深刻。

最后，需要考生自己进行有效地删选，再回忆自己所积累的英语进行正确的表达。

六级真题如：“Whether technology is indispensable in education.”

首先，考题中出现“whether”一词，所以考生构思文章就可以选择两个观点的其中之一阐述，或者两个观点分别加以阐述。

其次，出现了文章的观点就需要阐述持有该观点的理由。

最后，应用自己在考神团队写作课上所讲授到的功能句进行套用表达。

二 写作的必备积累

1 基础语法。

写作是一个输出的过程，要求考生一定具备最基础的语法才会造出正确的句子，所以在真正写作之前，考生需要检验自己的最基本语法知识是否具备。具体如下：时态，语态，三大从句，主谓一致。倘若可以掌握更复杂的语法点自然是更好，如：虚拟语气，强调，倒装，非谓语动词等。但在此之前需要考生掌握造句的最基本语法。

2 高级词汇以及高级固定句型的积累。

写作的高分标准不是语言的正确表达，而是优美表达，换言之，文章不是写对就是高分，需要写好。这就要求考生一定有语言的积累，体现在写作的造句方面就是单词和句型的升级。

三 写作的提高方法

1 阅读优秀范文。

阅读是写作的基础，写好英语先要读好英语。积累一个词，应该要同时掌握这个词的用法。记单词不能光记它的表面意思，而应深入了解它的适用语境、常用搭配、习惯用法等，这样才算真正掌握了一个词。

例如“Actually, no rules of the game states you must do anything”这个句子中，查字典了解到“state”一词意思是“表明、说明”，在这里作及物动词，用法之一是“…state…”。以后在写作中要表达“考试中取得高分表明你学习取得了很大进步”便可写成“The high marks of the tests state youve made great progress in your studies”。

2 加强练词造句训练。

词句对作文相当于造房的材料，无好材料就造不出好房子。平时在学习阅读时要注意收集积累，把好的词语、短语、句型做好笔记。平时在练习中的错误也要做好记录，再对照正确句子，使地道的英语句子如同条件反射，落笔就对。

3 了解英语写作格式

可以先看一本介绍英语写作入门的书，对英语写作有一个初步的概念，如怎么写议论文，如何提出论据，如何展开，如何确定中心句；又如，英语信的格式，如何根据不同身份写不同结束语等，然后根据不同的体裁进行写作练习。

4恰当运用过渡词

恰当运用过渡词可以使文章结构紧凑，过渡自然，避免脱节现象。时间上的衔接词有“then、as time goes by、day after day、gradually、finally”等，表因果关系的有“as a result、because of、thanks to”等.

总的来说，要提高自己的英语写作能力，必须多精读、泛读，积累精彩的单词、短语、句子，并尽可能地运用到自己的习作中去，多模仿一些原汁原味的文章，这样才能使自己的写作水平跃上一个新台阶。

游记是对旅行进行记录的一种文体，现在也多指记录游览经历的文章，游记有带议论色彩的，有带科学色彩的，有带抒情色彩的。下面是小编整理的游记作文写作方法指导，欢迎阅读。

在节假日，小学生在父母和老的在节假日，小学生在父母和老师的带领下，到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。如果将游览时看到的景物，所听到的声音，所产生的联想，所获得的感受，按照一定的顺序，有重点、有感情地记录下来，就是一篇游记。写游记有如下一些要求。

(一)写游记必须写清游踪

要记住从什么地方到了什么地方，每个地方的名称，以及每个地方的方位。这样读者才能搞清楚你先到什么地方。后到什么地方，才能确定你所要描述的景物的具体位置以及它的特征，唤起读者对你所游览之处的神往之情。同时，也使文章福有条理，层次清晰。

(二)要留心观察

观察是写好游记的基础。游览时，不能走马观花，要仔细观察。所谓仔细观察，就是要看景物的形状、颜色、质地是怎样的，静态下什么样，动态下又是什么样，等等。只有这样，在写作时可选的材料才多，才便于把景物写具体、写出特点来。另外，在观察的时候，还要按一定的顺序，或由近及远，又远到近;或从上到下，从下到上;或从里到外，从外到里;或从中间到两边，从两边到中间;或从整体到局部，从局部到整体。按照这样顺序去观察，彩绘全面，描写时彩绘有条理。

(三)要做记录

学生游览的时候，看的东西多，去的地方也比较广，一时很难记住，就是当时记住了，过后也难免遗忘，不利于组织作文。为了避免这种情况，游览时要求学生带上笔和本，边观察、边记录，随看随记，就不会忘记了，写作文的时候还便于选择。另外，公园和修蓝区的有些景物带有介绍。

例如，辞经管是何时建造的，经历了哪些发展阶段，占地面积是多少，包含着怎样动人的故事和美丽的传说等等。这些资料很有可能成为学生作文时的宝贵材料，应该要学生记录下来。在游览之后，要求学生及时地把自己观察到的和记录的材料整理归类，看看哪些是属于作文需要的材料，哪些需要详写，哪些需要略写，做到心中有书，为下一步作文做好准备工作。可以要求学生按照下面的表格整理材料。

状物作文，是小学生作文训练中的一个重要项目。所谓状物，就是具体、形象地描写物体的特征、形态、色彩、质地等。这个物还应该包括动物、植物等类。由于不同的物有不同的特点，所以状物的方法也不一样。

[游记作文写作方法指导

10、直接抒情法

【特点】

直接抒情可以使感情表达得朴实真切，震动人心。直接抒情一般适用于抒发强烈而紧张的感情。直接抒情的特点是叙述时感情强烈，节奏时快、紧张，情感直露，容易把握。

11、间接抒情法

【特点】

间接抒情的特点是抒情含蓄婉转，富有韵味，感染力强。间接抒情一般可以通过叙述抒情，作者在叙述时加上自己主观感情色彩，根据感情的流动来叙述，使读者在叙述的过程中感受作者的思想感情；也可以通过议论抒情，作者在议论中，表达强烈的爱憎、褒贬之情，这种记叙中的议论一般是利用判断来进行；还可以通过描写来抒情，作者在描写的过程中，渗透自己的情感。采用间接抒情的方法，要做到语言美丽而又富有感情色彩。

12、先叙后议法

【特点】

先叙后议是先叙事后议论，因此议论要起总结上文，点胆中心的作用。议论时，要对事件的主要内容，或事件的主要人物，或主要事物进行议论。这样才能做到叙事和议论的统一。议论的方法，可以通过文章的人物的语言、心理活动进行议论，也可以以第三者的身份进行议论。

13、先议后叙法

【特点】

采用先议后叙的方法，首先开门见山地提出记叙的要点和中心，并以此统全文，使全文所记事件的意义，通过议论之后，显得清楚明白。在叙事的时候，要根据议论的中心，抓住重点进行写作。

14、夹叙夹议法

【特点】

夹叙夹议的特点是叙事和议论穿插进行，写法上灵活多变，作者可以自由自在表情达意。采用夹叙夹议的方法写作要注意叙事的连贯性，议论插入要自然。

[常见100种作文写作方法之议论抒情

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

一、法学论文写作的意义

法学论文写作对于学习法学和研究法学的人来说都至关重要。对于本科阶段的同学们来说，法学论文主要体现为两种：一种是学年论文，也就是在每门课程结束的时候，作为一种考试方法的法学论文;另外一种是毕业论文，也就是为了取得法学学士学位而写作的论文。两者尽管具有不同的要求，但是对于写作方法的要求基本相同，我们在这里所谈论的法学论文写作包括这两种形式。

法学论文的写作最能够锻炼同学们用法学的思维方法进行思考和研究的能力，培养和提高搜集资料、发现问题、分析问题和解决问题的能力。同时也为同学们将来在研究生阶段的进一步研究和学习奠定基础。

二、 法学论文写作的目的与态度

通常来说，法学论文，属于学术论文，也就是用来表述学术研究成果的一种文体。学术论文包括一般的学术论文和学位论文。通常我们写的学术论文为一般的学术论文。从学位论文的层次上来看主要可以分为三种：学士学位论文、硕士学位论文和博士学位论文。不同的层次的学位论文有着不同的要求，特别是在创新性、规范性和篇幅上等等。硕士论文一般要求字数在2.5万字以上，而博士论文的要求是在12万字以上，对于学士学位论文来说，只要求5000字以上;硕士学位论文要求对所研究的客体应当有新的见解，博士学位论文要求在科学或专门技术上做出创造性的成果。

实际上来说，写论文只是学习如何做研究的方法与过程，以便在将来学业完成后能够继续从事研究，并将自己的研究成果以比较符合学术规范的形式予以公开和传播而已，所以本科阶段学习写论文的目的在于掌握基本的学术规范和写作技巧。著名的当代经济学家张五常曾经说到：太阳底下没有新东西，只要不抄袭，是自己想出来的，要完全没有创见就不容易。

所以在法学论文写作的态度上我们应注意两点：

一是端正态度，自己创作，把写作的过程作为自己学习的机会和过程，禁止抄袭。

在目前网络极为便利的时代，在互联网和局域网上可以很轻易地获得各种题目的论文，要把不同的论文题目剪切组合在一起拼凑成新的论文，简直就是易如反掌，而且说实话，有的论文或者文章指导老师也不一定看得出来，所以这里就需要自律，有一种起码的学术道德的自我约束。他律，也就是将来的答辩委员会、指导教师或者同学们的约束也会起点作用，但最为关键的是自己对自己的约束。所以撰写论文也是学习做人的过程，实事求是，诚信做人，一旦发现抄袭和请人代替，毕业论文成绩就将一律按照不及格处理。

二是要区分抄袭与引用、模仿的区别。

完全的不假思索的大幅的照抄照搬，是抄袭，是剽窃，是对他人的知识产权的侵犯，而对于别人的观点的引用，最好是加上自己的评论，这就不属于抄袭。

引用必须要注明出处，要注明你这个文献是从哪里得到的，这个文献的基本信息，也就是文献的作者、名称、公开的时间等等，还要说明你引用的文字是从哪一页上得来的。为什么要写的这么详细啊?还要便于你的文章的读者可以自己去获得这些资料，也便于别人去核查一下你的资料是真的还是假的，你的资料引用是否有错误。这也是一个起码的学术道德水准和学术态度问题。

本科生(包括自考生)和研究生论文答辩的时候，答辩老师首先看什么?首先看你的论文的格式是否符合学位论文的要求啊，尤其是行为的段落格式(比如首行缩进两个字符等)，再看你的注释(脚注和尾注)，然后再看看你引用了哪些人的文章，你的文献的来源是否是来自高品位和高质量的学术刊物，你的文章总体上是否引用了该领域内最为重要的和最新的文献，最后才是看看你的论文的结构、论证方法、论证主题、结论又没有问题。

象很多论文比赛等，作为评审老师，也是这么看待的。这里可以说用一本书的名字来表达“漂亮者生存”，学术论文也是，没有漂亮的外表是无法在读者和评阅者的世界里存活的，因为“外表是一个人最公开、最外在的部分，它是我们的仪式，是这个世界认为可以由此而得知其内在心灵的人的可见的自我。”对于初学写作的人来说，模仿是可以比较快速地学习和掌握法学论文写作的基本方法和规范的。

【思考：有的同学认为，我自己写的文章全部都是我自己写的，是我自己一个人思考出来的，这就是我的文章的创造性，我不需要引用任何他人的文献资料。请谈谈对这个问题的看法?】

三、 法学论文写作的基本问题

(一) 法学本科论文的写作程序

现在我们学校的法学本科毕业论文的写作的要求是比较严格的，主要体现在：

1、严格确定一个指导教师所能够指导的毕业生的数量，是1比20，也就是说一个老师最多只能够指导20各学生的毕业论文。

2、加强了在选题、开题、中期检查、评阅、答辩以及成绩评定等环节的监督和管理。

具体来说，法学本科论文写作的程序一般要经过以下几个步骤：

(1)确定指导教师。选择指导教师和选择题目一样重要，有时仅仅从名气和一些外在的东西作为选择的标准不见得是明智之举，应当以是否严格作为标准，因为这样的教授，因为他们更有效率，而且更看重你的研究。

(2)确定题目，进行开题。主要的内容就是要向指导教师或者开题委员会报告你选择的题目的意义以及研究现状，你所要研究的主要内容、研究的方法和思路，你做了哪些准备，比如已经发表或撰写的文章，搜集到的文献资料，以及你对自己论文写作的总体安排和进度。指导教师或者开题委员会回你就所拟写的题目提出各种意见，支持的意见，反对的意见，改进的意见等等。

按照现在不少老师的要求，在正式写作之前，是先要搜集资料和撰写提纲的，因为对于指导老师来说，判定一个学生的论文到底能够写道什么水平，一个很重要的因素就是看你搜集到了什么样的文献资料，没有好的米是一定做不出味道好的米饭的，另一个就是要看你的论文的提纲如何安排布局，这个论文提纲包含了你的论文的结构和主题，一定程度上也决定了你的写作思路，所以至关重要。

(3)初稿写作阶段。在完成了以上准备工作之后就可以进入初稿写作阶段了;在初稿写作之中，可以就遇到的问题同指导教师交换意见，也可以向同学或者其他的先进们寻求帮助。

(4)定稿和答辩。初稿写就之后，要送给老师审阅，请老师提出相关的意见和建议，在发给同学们进行修改，这样的修改可能会经过好几次，直至最后，经指导老师同意就可以定稿了，

教师签署意见推荐答辩。

与同学们论文写作密切相关的主要的就是要经过这几个步骤。

(二) 题目的选择与设计

1、 题目的选择

题目的选择有的是教师制定题目，有的是同学们自主选择题目。目前在我们学校的做法是向指导教师征集本科毕业论文选题，力争达到一人一题。

指导教师指定题目，分配给大家，这样也可能写出好的学位论文来，但是学生没有学会如何选题，学术研究能力就不完整，缺乏选题的能力。学会选题，学会自己设计课题，对于培养高水平的法学人才来说，是极为重要的一项能力。

2、 题目的设计

题目的设计，也就是题目如何表述的问题。题目应当设计的尽可能的适中，不宜过大或者过小，而且题目的设计尽可能的表明你的论文写作的主要内容，往往各个教研室提供给学生的题目清单，都是比较大的题目，学生自己选择了一个之后，应当对这个题目在进行细化，确定自己所要研究的内容。

比如在今年民商法学院的学年论文题目清单中就有很多题目，其中选择不当得利制度研究的就有很多人，如果每个人都选择相同的“不当得利”作为题目，势必造成协作的论文的结构上和内容上的雷同，反而使得自己的论文不能够在成绩评定中胜出，所以选择这个主题的人就开始对题目进行分工，有的写不当得利的构成要件，有的写不当得利制度的历史沿革，有的写不当得利与侵权行为制度价值取向的比较等等，这样就能够比较有的放失，写出出色文章来。

(三) 论文提纲的组织与安排

论文提纲的组织和安排注意两个问题：

1、论文提纲应当是由一系列的命题所组成的，这一系列的命题代表了论文的基本观点和论证的逻辑思路。

对于写作者来说，便于检查自己的论证思路在逻辑上和事实上是否站的住脚;

对于指导者来说，便于检查写作者的论证方法和主要观点是否能够通过答辩。

2、数字标题从大到小的顺序写法：一、(一)1.(1)实例： 当代俄罗斯宪法对私有财产的保护

一、当代俄罗斯宪法精神的变化和基本原则

二、当代俄罗斯宪法对私有财产保护的一般规定：私有财产上的自由与义务

(一)当代俄罗斯宪法对私有财产保护的模式：自由与义务

(二)当代俄罗斯宪法对私有财产保护的自由方面

(三)当代俄罗斯宪法对私有财产保护的义务方面

1.对一般私有财产的限制

2.对特殊私有财产的限制

三、俄罗斯宪法法院在私有财产保护方面的作用

(一)俄罗斯宪法法院的历史和运作机制

(二)对俄罗斯宪法法院在保护私有财产的实践

(四) 论文资料搜集

1、 论文资料搜集的意义

论文资料的搜集就是信息情报的搜集，使整个论文写作成功的关键所在，论文的创造性的一个重要指标就是资料的新颖性，新资料是非常珍贵的和值得研究的对象。尤其在我国法学转型的过程中，亟需从国外了解更多的关于某些法律制度的情况，梁慧星教授也认为，把某外国某项法律制度研究清楚，工作我国立法和理论研究的参考，这就是价值。将外国的某项制度、理论引入国内，使之体系化、条理化，以便我们能够了解、把握、借鉴，这就是学术性和实践性。

对于一个现代的高素质的法学专家，无论是律师，还是法官，特别是法学研究人员来说，信息搜集能力是一个人工作能力高低的体现，同时也是一个人专业素养的体现。据说，在日本的中小学校里就开设了专门的情报搜集课程。

2、 论文资料的类型

论文资料的类型主要可以分为：

(1)书面文件和电子文件。

前者包括教科书、专著、论文(学术论文和学位论文)、法律文件(法典、法律、司法解释)、法院判例;

后者主要是指来自联机网上数据库[DB/OL]、磁带数据库[DB/MT]、光盘图书[M/CD]、网上期刊[J/OL]。

(2)中文资料和外文资料。

在目前中国的法学论文中，存在着对于外文资料的偏好。甚至存在着照搬外文资料的情况。

对于外文资料的运用应当注意从中提炼出基本的命题或者问题出来。如何从外国法学文献中学习法学论文写作?邓正来先生在一次讲座中提到，他原来是川外外语专业毕业的，在多年的研究中，坚持边读外语原著，便将外语原著翻译为汉语，积累了几百万字的素材和资料，翻译出版了多部著作，也出版了多部专著。纵观当今时代的青年法学家如贺卫方、顾陪东等都有一个阶段翻译了许多外语原著的时期，所以朱苏力曾经说过年轻的转型时期的法学家都有一个通过翻译学习的阶段。

【思考：外语水平的高低对当代法学人才培养有何重要意义?】

(3)文献的类型的缩略语

专著为M,期刊文章J，报纸文章为N，学术报告为R，学位论文为D，论文集为C，不知道的文献类型为Z。

3、 论文资料的搜集方法

(1)【按图索骥法】

根据所搜集的论文的参考文献和注视中去寻找你所需要的论文资料;查到了这些论文所在的期刊、期号、页数之后就可以在图书馆里查找了;

(2)【图书馆实地搜检法】

当然如果有时间和空闲的话，就不停地在图书馆里转悠，将图书馆里相关部分的资料，反复搜检，将发现的有用的资料全部借阅。

(3)【e时代的e方法】

【寻找文献信息的一般方法：一般的互联网查询方法】

有的人喜欢使用google、百度、雅虎、搜狐等一般地互联网搜索网站，使用这种网站的缺点是资料信息太多，内容和主题驳杂，而且搜集来的资料缺乏准确性和可复查性，往往是没有办法和对你查询到的东西是否就真是的和准确的。通常的论文写作中很少用这些东西去搜集。

但是最近google推出了专门的学术互联网搜索网站，这个比较好，能够检索都所有的关于某一主题的期刊文章，他列出了文章的名称、作者、发表的期刊的刊名和期号，便于大家去寻找原文。较为方便，目前由于刚刚推出所以使用的还是比较少的。建议大家使用!

【寻找文献信息的专门方法：专门的电子查询系统】

在各大学或者国家图书馆的查询系统上查询，在此类的查询系统上，只能够免费得到论文的题目、所在的期刊的名称、期号，作者等等，但是不能够得到原文;查到了这些目录后就可以在图书馆里查找这些论文了。

【查询电子全文的方法】

在不少大学，图书馆都购买了专门的电子数据库，特别是cnki、万方数据库、人大报刊资料复印中心、北大法宝等都可以查询文章的电子版全文。在我们学校就有以上数据库，同学们可以在宿舍里直接通过互联网查询(方法是登录学校图书馆网站，点击相应的主题，就可以进入某一数据库进行查询，校内用户不需要密码和用户名)。

对于在校外的时候如何查询?通常在校外登录这些数据库是需要密码和用户名的，校内可以免费使用的在校外的时候就不可以使用了。建议大家登录“听风博客”，这个个人博客里边搜集了相当多的这些数据库的密码和用户名，还有相当多的电子图书的信。

介绍家乡的一种产品教学目标：1、指导学生读懂例文《银杏》，了解其主要内容和写作思路，初步感知作者是抓住哪些方面来写银杏的，国标苏教版六年级上册语文教案 习作 5 介绍家乡的一种产品。让学生懂得全面了解某一事物，光靠看还不行，还要学会问、学会查找资料。2、引导学生了解家乡的一种产品，进行仔细观察，并询问有关的人，查找有关资料，对这种产品有一个较为全面的了解，培养搜集材料的能力的良好的习惯。3、借助习作要点的提示，学习例文的方法，引导学生把观察到的、询问到的与查阅到的资料按一定的顺序整理成文。教学重点、难点：1、学习例文获取作文材料的方法。2、训练学生如何把观察到的、询问到的、查阅到的资料整理成文。教学准备：组织学生实地参观，引导学生像沈平平那样自己支观察、搜集作文材料。

教学过程：

一、导入示标：

1、指导观察，激发兴趣出示挂图，让学生说说图上画了什么。2、谈话导入：刚才同学们观察了这幅画，说了自己观察到的内容，如果我们就这样写下去，不仅显得零乱，而且也不够形象、逼真。沈平平同学根据金老师的要求写了这棵银杏，写得很好，下面我们就来向她学习，看看她是怎么写的，教案《国标苏教版六年级上册语文教案 习作 5 介绍家乡的一种产品》。3、出示学习目标。

二、布置自学

1、出示自学题：自由轻读例文，思考：这篇例文先写了什么，后写了什么？用“—”画出来。2、学生自学。

三、检查自学

1、指名学生回答。2、教师适时板书。3、小结：这篇例文先写了银杏的枝干、叶、花、果的特点，再写银杏的价值，最后写出人们为什么称银杏为“活化石”。

四、精讲精练本课的精讲点：

（一）再读例文，讨论写法1、学生自读，思考：沈平平是如何一步一步地按照金老师的要求完成《银杏》这篇习作的。2、交流讨论。3、小结：（1）在仔细观察的基础上，沈平平同学介绍了银杏的干、靶、花、果的特点，还写了形状、颜色等。（2）在观察的基础上，沈平平询问自然老师，查阅有关资料，知道了银杏的价值和为什么银杏被称为“活化石”。3、读“习作要点提示”，对照例文，明确写作要求。（1）齐读例文后面的“习作要点提示”。（2）讨论本次写作的要点和重点。（3）小结：这是一篇状物类的习作训练习作内容：介绍家乡的一种产品，可以是农副产品，也可以是工业产品。习作题目：自定。习作重点：把观察到的、询问到的、查阅到的资料整理成文。

（二）读写迁移，运用写法1、确定习作内容及要点。（1）你准备介绍家乡的哪一种产品？（2）在观察的基础上介绍产品的外部特征，如形状、颜色、大小、质地等。（3）在询问和查阅资料的基础上，介绍该产品的营养价值或用途、食用方法或使用方法。（4）通过询问和查阅资料，介绍该产品在食用或使用时应注意的问题。2、组织学生交流、评议。3、教师指点：介绍产品的三个方面内容时不要平均用力，要注意有详有略，侧重写一两个方面的内容，注意说法要有根据。

五、课堂练习

1、学生起草习作，教师巡视指导。2、学生完成3、当堂反馈。

六、总结提升介绍产品的三个方面内容时不要平均用力，要注意有详有略，侧重写一两个方面的内容，注意说法要有根据。

七、下节课预习作业。

要学好写英语短文，就必须经常练习写作。记日记是提高书面表达能力的有效方法之一。日记是每日生活的记载，是一种记事文体。

一、日记的格式

英文日记通常由书端和正文两个部分组成。日记常以第一人称记下当天生活中的所见、所闻、所做或所想的事情。中、英文的日记三格式大致一样。英语日记的书端 是专门写日记的日期、星期和天气的。左上角是日期(年、月、日)、星期。右上角写上当天的天气情况， 如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Windy，Snowy，Cloudy等。

1、日期表达有多种形式。年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开。例如：

A)September 1，2004或September 1st，2004也可省略写成Sept. 1，2004或Sept. 1st，2004;the 1st of September in 2004(月份不可以缩写)

B)只有月、日：September 1或September 1st(月份可以缩写)

C)只有年、月：September 2004或the September of 2004(月份不可以缩写)

以上的1或1st都应读作the first.

2、星期也可以省略不写，可将其放在日期前或后，星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写。如：

Saturday，October 22nd，2004;October 22nd，2004 Saturday

3.天气情况必不可少。天气一般用一个形容词如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Snowy 等表示。写在日期之后，用逗号隔开，位于日记的右上角。如：

Saturday，March 4，2004，Windy;1st January，2004，Fine

二、日记的要求

日记的正文是日记的主要部分，写在星期和日期的正下方，可以顶格写，也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间。由于记载的内容通常已经发生，谓语动词多用一般过去 时。但也可根据具体情况，用其它时态。如：记叙天气、描写景色，为了描写生动，可以使用现在时，以表现当时的情景。再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或 将来时态。记日记力求简单明了，有连贯性。若有文字提示，则应重视提示，把握要点。在句式上尽量使用简单句，以防繁杂，造成语法、句型错误。

三、日记的类型和训练

日记分为记事型、议论型、描写型和抒情型。建议大家在学习写日记的过程中，可按以下步骤进行：

①将一天所经历的主要事情和过程依次简要地记下来，不附加任何感情色彩，这是最简单的记日记的方法;

②阅读别人的日记，并利用所学过的句型来表达个人在一天中观察到的或感受到的事情。

「范文与点评」

March 12th，2003，Tuesday Sunny (Fine)

Today is Tree Planting Day. At 7∶30 in the morning，all the students in our class met at the school gate. We walked to the park. Miss Gao and other teachers went and worked with us. All the students worked very hard，and we planted about 200 trees. Though we were dirty and tired，we still felt very happy.

这是一篇记叙型的日记。结构严谨，中心突出，有选择地记录当天的见闻(人或事)，并加以分析和评论。

常用的励志英语句子有很多，但是你能在短时间内就想起来吗?下面是语文迷为大家整理的英语励志句子，希望对你写英语作文有帮助。

Children in backseats cause accidents. Accidents in backseats cause children. 后排座位上的小孩会生出意外，后排座位上的意外会生出小孩。

Don’t take guilt trips. Take a trip to the mall, to the next country, to a foreign country, but NOT to where the guilt is.别踏上犯罪的道路。你可以去逛街，可以到邻县去，可以出国旅行，但就是别踏上犯罪的道路。

Enjoy the simple things.享受简单事物的乐趣。

I will greet this day with love in my heart.我要用全身心的爱来迎接今天。

Keep learning. Learn more about the computer, crafts, gardening, whatever. Never let the brain idle. "An idle mind is the devil’s workshop. And the devil’s name is Alzheimer’s."学无止境。多学学电脑、手艺、园艺等等。不要让你的大脑闲置下来。无所事事是魔鬼的加工厂。魔鬼的名字叫“痴呆症”。

Keep only cheerful friends. The grouches pull you down.结交快乐的朋友。整日愁眉不展只能让你雪上加霜。

There will be no regret and sorrow if you fight with all your strength.

只要全力地拼搏，就不会有遗憾，没有后悔。

Time is a bird for ever on the wing.

时间是一只永远在飞翔的鸟。

Time will never change and stop for any person.

时间不给任何人情面，也不会为谁而停留。

Today, give a stranger one of your smiles. It might be the only sunshine he sees all day.

今天，给一个陌生人送上你的微笑吧。很可能，这是他一天中见到的唯一的阳光。

Victory wont come to me unless I go to it.

胜利是不会向我们走来的，我必须自己走向胜利。

Walk the road you want to walk and do what you want to do , keep moving ahead and that’s not the silence of failure.

走自己想走的路，干自己想干的事，勇敢向前，这就是你不败的沉默。

We all have moments of desperation. But if we can face them head on, that’s when we find out just how strong we really are.

我们都有绝望的时候，只有在勇敢面对时，我们才知道我们有多坚强。

We must accept finite disappointment, but we must never lose infinite hope.

我们必须接受失望，因为它是有限的，但千万不可失去希望，因为它是无穷的。

The future is scary but you can’t just run to the past cause it’s familiar.

未来会让人心生畏惧，但是我们却不能因为习惯了过去，就逃回过去。

The first step is as good as half over.

第一步是最关键的一步。

The failures and reverses which await men - and one after another sadden the brow of youth - add a dignity to the prospect of human life, which no Arcadian success would do.

尽管失败和挫折等待着人们，一次次地夺走青春的容颜，但却给人生的前景增添了一份尊严，这是任何顺利的成功都不能做到的。

Success is the continuous journey towards the achievement of predetermined worth while goals .To live your life in your own way .To reach the goals , you’ve set for yourself . To be the person, you want to be ——that is success .

成功是不断向领先确定的有价值的目标前进的过程，用自己的方式生活，达到自己定下的目标，做出自己想做的人——这就是成功。

Success is the ability to go from one failure to another with no loss of enthusiasm.

成功是，你即使跨过一个又一个失敗，但也沒有失去热情。

Ones real value first lies in to what degree and what sense he set himself.

一个人的真正价值首先决定于他在什么程度上和在什么意义上从自我解放出来。

People neeed some courage in life, just like climbing a cliff .Although there are stemp ahead, you still fell some timorous and dare not go ahead. But when you conquer the timidity and reach the peak, you will feel the importance of courage as you enjoy the beautiful scenes. It is the same with life.

人生需要一点勇气和胆量，就如登一座悬崖峭壁的山峰，虽然上面都有云梯、搭好的台阶，可你就是有点胆怯，不敢向前，但你战胜了自我，到达了顶峰，看到了山顶的景色，你就会感到勇气和胆量是成功的标准人生何尝不是如此呢?

Real dream is the other shore of reality.

真正的梦就是现实的彼岸。

Sharp tools make good work.

工欲善其事，必先利其器。

Sometimes your plans don’t work out because God has better ones.

有时候，你的计划不奏效，是因为上天有更好的安排。

Standing firm is to challenge difficult courageously and to leave the smile after sccess to oneself.

坚强，就是勇敢的向困难挑战，把成功的微笑留给自己。

Never underestimate your power to change yourself!

永远不要低估你改变自我的能力!

Never, never, never, never give up.

永远不要、不要、不要、不要放弃。

一直以来，雅思写作考试的大作文主体段的拓展往往是很多考生在写作中突显的最为薄弱的一个环节，其中论证过程单薄、不充分、没有力量，导致论点站不住脚是主要的原因，从而使得整篇文章留下失败的一笔。议论文，说到底，最关键的一点就是让读者对你在文章中所体现的立场认同。要做到这一点，靠的就是论点和论证。论点要合理、明确，且不要重复，要有层次;论证要做到充分，要有强大的力量把论点支撑起来，让读者心服口服，认同你的想法。作为海外考试来说，考生要做的就是让考官明确地知道你的想法，并且认同你，最终让他给你一个合理且满意的写作分数。

如何成功地完成主体段落的拓展呢?要勾画出一个充实且具有说服力的论证过程，我们当然要使用到一些论证手段，结合这些论证方法的使用，协助我们较好地完成相对来说最困难的论证过程。

一、 举例论证法

要更为直观地反映问题，举例无疑是最好的选择，也是最具有说服力的。常见的引出实例的方式：如for example, for instance, as is reported, It is reported that…, 可作为插入语的结构使用在句中。实例也可以分为几种情况，如下：

1. 应用名人实例，这是大家都知道的事情，容易引起共鸣。如在教育类话题中有一个考点涉及到中学生要不要学历史，在论证古人的经验和智慧给我们很多借鉴意义时，就可以引用一些名人的例子。

Charles Darwin, for example, taught us that only the fittest can survive, which is more than ever true in today’s competitive society.

2. 应用某些调查研究结果，常结合具体数据，更能增强真实性说服力。社会类话题老人问题上，要求分析人口老龄化所带来的影响，其中谈到积极意义时，会提到老人对家庭及社会的贡献。我们可以在两个地方找到列数据的点，一是老人的年龄，二是在有意义的事情上所花的时间，可以得出论证过程如下：

As is reported, the average time that the retired within the age group above 65 spend on the family and the community is at its length of about 5 hours per day.

3. 应用生活中具有普遍性的现象或有代表性的亲身经历。在文化这类较为抽象的话题中，有典型地要求分析文化差异会带来的不同国家人之间的冲突，可以引用这样的现象：

A western woman travelling to the Middle East may find it annoying to have to wear headscarf during a journey.

要做到恰当合适地使用实例进行论证，要求考生在平时的准备过程中，就要着重对各大话题常见的考点进行典型实例的收集，最好是比较万能的一些例子，这样就能充分利用举例子的优势，在考试中赢得高分。

二、 解释说明(拓展影响)法

中心论点表达一般比较空泛、笼统，作为论证，首先就要对空泛的意思加以具体地解释，说明原因，解释过程，阐述影响，这是一种惯用的思维，这里打不开，后面说得再多也可能都是白搭。常结合定语从句，分词的语法应用。我们来看一个例子：

By travelling abroad, we have the opportunity to experience different customs, cultures and lifestyles, helping us better understand the whole world.

这个句子是对论点出国旅游有助于我们开拓眼界的论证，采取的就是解释的方式，目的就是协助论点表达得更透彻。

三、 因果推理法

这种方法是基于一个事实的陈述，推出它可能会产生的结果，然后一环扣着一环往下推，直至目标内容出现，也就是论点的内容呈现了。常结合因果关系的状语从句结构展开论证，要注意推理逻辑连接词的应用，如as, since, because, therefore, hence, thus, as a consequence, consequently, ……

论证高中生毕业后先去工作再上大学的这种作为会带来的不利影响之一——这种方式容易使高中生误入歧途，论证过程如下：Since high school students are mentally immature, they are less likely to resist the temptation in the real world. As a result, they are more prone to some social evils, such as theft, drug abuse, and so on. So, they may easily go astray and even commit crime.

四、 对照对比论证法

拿相同或相反的事物做比较，相同关系叫对照(comparison)，相反关系叫对比(contrast)。此类论证考生需要重点掌握一些对比对照关系的连词：in contrast, by contrast, on the contrary, while, whereas, likewise, similarly, by the same token。

先看个例子，如：论证广告给消费者提供及时信息，帮助他们做决定中论述到：By contrast, without advertising, a consumer is at the risk of purchasing a product that fails to meet all of his or her needs, because of lack of knowledge of better alternatives in the market.这就是从反面着手，阐述如果没有广告，消费者会受到的影响，用反方的劣势达到衬托正方优势的效果。若想使论点具有说服力，可以尝试寻找对应的参照物相比较，在所选参照物明显的不足面前，本来事物的优点会立刻容易被人信服。

再来分析下对照的例子：They cite that in the sports world, records are always created when a sportsman is facing tough competitions. They believe that, by the same token, in a classroom where clever minds meet, students can achieve their best due to peer pressure. 拿体育比赛中的情况作对照，突出分班教学的必要性。

五、 让步论证法

欲擒故纵的高超写法，对考生来说比较陌生，先退一步承认与自己观点相反的事实，再转折给出自己的观点，否定前者。让步这种方法的优点是能较为全面地看待一个问题，而且反驳更能有的放矢。比如举一个大家特别熟悉的例子，一个男生向女生表白时被拒绝，女生会很委婉地表示，先肯定男生有很多优点，但最终会表示自己并不喜欢他，他不是她喜欢的类型。这种方式一方面不会伤害到男孩的自尊，同时也鲜明地表达了自己的想法。在这种论证中，常见句型如下：although / though / in spite of the fact that…; as is granted / admittedly…; opponents would argue that…

用以下例子加以说明：

1. As is granted, saving money offers people a sense of security in case of emergency. However, people tend to believe that wise investment can get more profits.

2. Opponents would argue that some of the violence shown on TV is the true portrayal of what is happening around us and people have the right to know it. Although this is undoubtedly true, it also means that people who see them a lot may gradually develop a sense of insecurity and mistrust as they are forced to believe they are living in a dangerous world.

很明显，我们在写作的论证过程中，对以上五种方法可以灵活地加以结合使用，不断地积累相关实例，不断地练习这些思维，在论证中做到游刃有余，充分的论证无疑是考生的加分点。希望以上的方法能为各位考生提供一些帮助。

如何提高信息的产出率、命中率，这是每位组工干部所关注的。现结合自身工作实践与学习体会，就如何写好组工信息，与大家共同进行探讨和交流。不当之处，敬请各位批评指正。

一、信息的概念、特点和作用

信息就是反映工作的文稿，是有价值的、客观情况的反映。层次高的信息是对原始信息的归纳、综合，是各级领导科学决策的重要依据。

信息的特点，主要表现在三个方面。一是具有宏观性。信息主要是为领导决策提供服务的，它所产生的效应直接或间接体现在决策方面。要求撰写信息人员围绕工作主题、单位工作中心工作抓大问题，抓有碍全局的实际问题，抓政策性问题，抓重要的监管动态以及重大的社情民意，而不是摄取小镜头，捕捉小花絮。二是具有真实性。与新闻报道不同，新闻报道要注重政治影响，而信息则要求实事求是。不管是喜是忧，都必须如实报告。一就是一，二就是二，决不允许在数字上来大概加估计。三是具有权威性。信息必须经过本级领导审查后方可报出，应该是具有严肃性的官方消息，决不是不加约束混淆视听的小道消息。

信息具有四个方面的作用，简单讲就是，宣传、协调、交流和引导。

二、信息的采编技巧

(一)要学会取材。有的同志反映，身边眼前都是平平常常的业务工作，哪有那么多具有价值的信息呢？信息从哪里来呢？通过积累和实践摸索，有14条采集信息的途径可以利用，用言简意赅的98个字加以概括，那就是：文件堆里挖；翻阅材料筛；讲话稿中捡；领导口中理；联系上下摸；会议之中捕；参与活动追；重大事件抢；深入基层拾；关注新闻抓；掌握规律掏；情况反馈传；跟踪问效知；利用网络选。信息就在我们的实际工作中，只要我们勤奋加刻苦，敏锐而深入，还会拓展出更多的渠道来，也一定会发现信息取之不尽，用之不竭。

(二)要注重时效。信息就像山里的药材，适时是宝，过时是草。要勤写快报，准确性中求快，新中求活，实中求深，是提高信息产出率的高招实招。同样一件事，你抢先一步，可能被录用，如果滞缓半拍，很可能被打入冷宫。

（三）要体现特色。条条块块承担的职能不同，信息的产生势必各有侧重。只有注重挖掘工作中的亮点，聚焦工作中的难点，采集领导关注的热点，信息工作才能源头活水滚滚来。

（四）要实事求是。编撰信息必须树立实事求是的文风，不做假大空的文章。不乱提诸如战略、战役、战术、方略等过高的口号。语言要求准确、朴实、精练、明快、提神，避免客套话和空话。

（五）要对号入座。要根据信息层次不同，需求不同，量体裁衣，看菜吃饭，适合于哪一级信息刊物用的就报给哪一级，内外有别。各有侧重，不搞一刀切，一锅煮。

三、信息的写法

(一)细琢鲜明标题。标题是信息内容的统帅、纲领。题常意要新，意常题要新，这是对标题较高的要求。如何写好标题：是题文一致。标题必须与内容一致，不能用一些不适当的副词、形容词，以免华而不实、故弄玄虚。同时，标题的观点在信息中要有充分的依据，语言精准，让人想看下去。内容准确，少不了时间，地点、人物、事件、效果等。

二是选择句式的艺术。陈述句、疑问句、祈使句、感叹句是汉语的四种基本句式。陈述句是将所要叙述的事情直接陈列表述出来。信息标题大量使用的是陈述句，并且多用主谓型结构。

题目审好后，第二步就是确定选材的问题，也就是写什么的问题，即文章的内容。材料选得好，文章就成功了一半，怎样才能选好材呢？请记住选材的口诀：

选材熟悉最重要，材料真实才可靠；典型事例有意义，新颖有趣为最好；围绕题旨选材料，感情真挚得分高；考场作文时间紧，选材原则要记牢。

老师在阅卷时，对学生的习作常常会有似曾相识燕归来的感觉。材料平淡，材料老套，没有新意。比如：《成功》——终于获奖了。《快乐》——获奖了，考好了，非常快乐。《苦恼》——成绩不好，真苦恼。《苦难后的芬芳》——成绩变好了，上次没考好，这次考好了。《难忘的一件事》——获奖的一次经历。许多考生，选材没有新意，就一个材料换汤不换药。

有的考生，背优秀习作，写起作文来，脑子里就搜索范文，张冠李戴套上去，让阅卷老师一瞧就知道不是真实的，作文没有真情实感，自然不能得高分。

同学们写不出真实熟悉的东西，关键是肚子里没货，平时不注意积累，不注重观察生活，其实生活是丰富多彩的，只要你做生活的有的人，留意生活，在生活中你一定会发现许多值得写的东西，积累起来，就是写作的材料。罗丹：生活中去少的不是美，而是发现。对于我们来说，生活是万花筒，是百科全书。生活中的许多闪光点，都具有典型性，都是典型的事例。生活有三大块组成家庭生活、学校生活、社会生活。这三方面的生活都为我们提供了取之不尽的写作源泉。然而作文不是材料的堆积，因此我们要注意材料的取舍和选择。

选用材料的标准：

一．材料要以真实为基础，写自己熟悉的东西。作文写的感情真挚动人，材料就要感人。作文的材料真实不是指材料的原始再现，而是指经过提炼，比现实生活更加鲜明，更加强烈，更加集中。比如事情的完整性、材料的理想性人物典型性等方面，要适当的进行加工。我们可将几个人的事情加在一个人身上，几个人的品质加在一个人身上，来深化人物和主题。

二．选材要典型有意义。指的是所选的材料是有代表性的，有意义的。因为有代表性的材料能以一当十、以个别反映一般，从而深刻而全面的反映事物本质。比如有位考生写《这事发生在我班》，选取了班上有个叫李玲的同学为灾区捐献300元。一人就捐出了占全班三分之二多，可谓突出、意义重大的事例。当然还可写平时吝啬的人捐出很多钱，这也是典型。学习上，平时不吭一声的人，突然在这堂课上发言了这也是典型

三．选材要新颖而生动做到：人无我有，人有我新，人新我奇。有的时间，换个角度想问题，可以老材料出新意。比如：让座是老掉了牙的材料，有一考生把让座写成谢座，使材料新颖了。有一位中学生让座给一位带小孩的妇女，这位妇女教小孩谢谢大哥哥，借孩子之口表达感激之情，到站了，这位妇女让孩子再次说谢谢大哥哥，大哥哥再见，再一次借孩子之口表示谢意。作者从中感悟，做了一点好事，得到的回报是一谢再谢。

四。在选材时，我们要首选打动自己的材料，如果所选材料一提起来自己就很感动，亏他想得出来的事件，是写出来一定能打动人，只有先打动自己，然后才能打动他人，这样的材料行之以文，感情真挚，得分一定会高。凡是考场上的满分作文，首先得力于选材的成功。所以说，选好了材料，文章就成功了一半。

【选材导练】

文题一：以良师为题，写一篇不少于600字的文章，体裁不限。

[点拨]

虽是全命题作文，但既无提示，又无其他限制，只要所写突出良师即可。这道题开放度很大，为学生提供了展现个性的广阔空间。要在选材上闪出创新的亮色，应把握以下几点。

1、多考生写教学上认真生活上关心的良师这类第一构思，选择医治心灵创伤等内容为题材，在读者面前凸现一个良医式的良师形象。

2、跳出一篇写一人的常规思维，从印象深刻的众多良师形象中选出若干最具美丽的场面，构成良师群体，从不同角度表现主题。

3、打破以人为师的框框，选取生活中通过暗示间接地教育你的事物为叙写对象，展现这些不开口的良师的内蕴美。你可以写黑板——心甘情愿地把自己漆成一身黑色，为的是能清楚地衬托出粉笔字的白；你可以写扫帚——同污秽赃物势不两立，必欲扫除之而后快，而当人们在赞美优美清洁的环境时，在议论该给谁一个荣誉称号时，它却躲到了不为人注意的墙角；你可以写橡皮——宁可天天承受磨砺身躯的痛苦，但决不放过白纸上一丝一毫的错误；当然你还可以写坚忍不拔的小草，写任劳任怨的老牛，写团结互助的大雁等等，应该注意的是，无论写何物为良师，你都要揭示你对它独特的感悟，亮出有个性的视角。

4、你如果对良师的判断标准有切身的体会，如果你对校内外良师的个案材料比较熟悉，那么你不应该随写记叙文之大流，写一篇观点和材料都较有个性的议论文，说说你对何为良师的独特见解。

文题二：《还我课外天地》

现有三则材料可供选用——

①学生课业负担过重，不能顾及课外天地。

②学校、家长卡得紧，不敢顾及课外天地。

你不妨想一想，①②两则选用者肯定很多，③则会少一些，你便可淘汰①②而取③。

文题三：以心中的美丽为话题

[点拨]：可选文学作品中的人物美、历史中的情感美等等。有，二泉映月的凄美，高山流水的情美，霸王别姬的壮美；有，长江黄河的奔腾咆哮之美，林间夜月的幽静雅致之美；有，歌坛上一展歌喉的婉转动人之美，舞台上千姿百态之美，赛场上叱咤风云之美，等等。

文题四：以感受青春为话题

[点拨]

本题就可以在体育界、歌坛上、商海里、战场上等等地方各选一位年轻有为的人物，写出他们青春的亮丽与风采。

文题五：以美在夏季为话题

[点拨]

本题可选不同人物眼里的夏季之美，如简真的《夏之绝句》、李清照的《如梦令》、辛弃疾的《西江月》、还有一首流行歌曲《盛夏的果实》、峻青的《海滨仲夏夜》等。

描写景物，表现独特的自然景观和地域风貌，赞美祖国的壮丽山河和大自然的奇妙，是记叙文的又一个重要类型。下面是小编分享的有关写景作文的写作方法，欢迎大家阅读！

首先，景物有狭义和广义之分。狭义的景物指提供人观赏的风景、建筑等；广义的景物指自然景观和人文景观，即自然环境和身会环境。换句话说，记叙文中的景物描写是指对自然风光、建筑物、动物、植物等事物的描写，所描写的景物在文章里占重要位置，这是写景记叙文与写人记事的记叙文的主要区别写人记事的记叙文中，有对自然环境和人物活动的背景介绍、环境描写，但它们在文章中不是主要内容，是为交代事件发生的时间、地点、环境，为渲染气氛服务的。同理，写景记叙文里也有写人叙事的内容，但都是为写景服务的。

其次，写景记叙文的中心思想是通过对景物的描写和人物感情抒发表达出来的。作者可以在文章中直接抒发感情，即所谓直抒胸臆，也可以通过写景表达出来，即所谓寓请于景；还可以在景物描写中蕴涵自己的主观感受，即所谓情景交融。要注意景物描写必须为人物的思想感情服务，与人物的思想感情相一致，不能孤立地、无目的地写景。

怎样写好写景的记叙文？

（一）要写出有特色的景物

一般来说，景物是各有特色的。同样都是公园，但每个公园都有各自的独特之处。例如，北海公园的白塔、九龙壁、颐和园的香阁、十七孔桥；天坛公园的祈年殿、回音壁；紫竹院公园的竹子；香山公园的红叶等。同样是山，我国的四大名山各领风骚，独具特色。同样是水，长江、黄河源远流长，孕育了中华文明数千载。或烟波浩渺、横无涯际；或奔腾咆哮、气势磅礴。这些景色都以其特有的鲜明的特点闻名于世，只有把它们的独特之处描绘出来，才能给人一种身临其境之感，使人得到美的陶冶和享受。

（二）要学会观察

写景作文和看图作文有相似之处，都是以观察作为写作的前提。观察景物与观察图画不同，观察景物要确定观察点，也就是观察景物的立足点。观察点不同，所看到的景物也就不同。宋代文学家苏轼有《题西林壁》：“横看成岭侧成峰，远近高低各不同。不识庐山真面目，只缘身在此山中。”由于观赏庐山的角度不同，所看到的景象，所获得的感受也就迥然不同了。

（三）要借助想象和联想

议论文是以议论为主要表达方式，通过摆事实，讲道理，直接表达作者的观点和主张的常用文体。下面是小编整理的议论文写作方法，欢迎阅读参考!

一、议论文知识

1、特点：以议论为主要表达方式，可兼用其他表达方式;以鲜明的态度表明观点或主张;以充分的材料证明其观点或主张。

2、要素：论点--对所论述的问题所持的观点态度;论据--对论点进行证明的材料依据;论证--用论据证明论点的过程和方法。

3、分类：立论，从正面阐述其观点，驳论，对反面论点进行驳斥，确立其正确的观点。

4、结构：基本结构，引论，本论，结论，论证结构，并列式，对照式，总分式，

5、方法：例证法，引证法，喻证法，类比法，对比法。引申法。

例证法：运用典型事例证明论点。

引证法：引用经典或名言、谚语等证明论点。

喻证法：借助形象的比喻来说明论点。

类比法：用另一同类事物或事例比较说明论点。

对比法：用反向例子或事理比较说明论点。

二、议论文常见模式

第一种：总分式(或称总分总式)

论说文的全文总体结构一般都是这种结构模式。论证方法一般都要在中心论点的统率下，确立几个从属于中心的，即为阐述中心论点服务的分论点，然后通过对分论点的逐一阐述，使中心论点得到深刻有力的证明。因而论说文全文结构，往往是"总--分--总"式。议论文几乎篇篇皆是这种结构模式。

第二种，并列式(又叫板块组合式)

并列式结构特点是，论证的层次作横向展开，分论点之间的关系是开列的，也就是分论点从不同角度、不同的侧面对中心论点或论述的中心问题展开论证，使文章呈现出一种多管齐下、齐头并进的格局。并列式的各个分论点，其先后次序有时可以前后互换;它们看起来是各自独立的，其实是紧密相关不可分割的一个整体。

例文：

细节的魅力

有一种颇为流行的话，看历史要看大势，看形势要看主流，看人物要看大节。这自然没错。但小事、细节也以其生动、直观、真实的特点而显得更鲜活，更有魅力，为人所喜闻乐见，津津乐道，而且也可由小见大，见微知著。

细节可定胜负。中日甲午海战前，日本间谍化装到中国军舰上侦察。当时，中国的军舰在吨位、数量、火力上都胜于日本，举国上下一片陶醉，以为中日海战，中方必胜无疑。可是中国军舰的炮塔上居然横七竖八晾着短裤、袜子，日本间谍就把这细节写在情报中，并分析道：这是一支纪律松弛，管理混乱的军队，人会有强大战斗力。果然，海战一开，中方惨败，几乎全军覆没，先进的军舰也都成了日军的战利品。

细节可知兴衰。抗日战争期间，华侨领袖陈嘉庚率团到国内访问，他先到国统区，国民x用一顿800大洋的盛宴来款待;他后到延安，毛xx则用几元钱的家常便饭为他接风。一奢一简，使他看清了国民x"前方吃紧，后方紧吃"不可挽回的腐x堕落，看清了共产党同仇敌忾、艰苦抗战的勃勃生机。从此，他认定中国的前途就寄托在中国共产党身上，于是，就坚定不移地站在中国共产党一边，成为中国共产党的朋友和中国革命胜利的见证。

细节可见精神。提到雷锋，人们会想起他那补了又补的袜子。他给敬老院送去的一块月饼;提到孔繁森，就会想起他去世后口袋中仅有的八元六角钱;提到朱德，就会想起井冈山上他的挑粮扁担;提到贺龙，就会想起长征路上的金色鱼钩……这些英雄伟人做过的大事，说过的名言，人们可能记不清了，可是，他们的一些生活细节却会让后人永远难忘，他们的伟大精神也就通过这些不起眼的细节永驻人心。

细节是华美乐章的一个音符，细节是鸿篇巨制的一个单词，细节是万顷波涛中的一朵浪花，细节是万仞高山上的一个石子。"一滴水可映出太阳光辉"，欣赏细节，把玩细节，会发现，小小细节，魅力无穷。

评：本文中间三个分论点之间的关系是并列的。它们从不同的角度、不同侧面对中心论点"细节有魅力"阐述其理由--为什么?

第三种：递进式

递进式的结构特点是分论点之间的关系不断递进。论证的层次向纵深展开，一层比一层深入地提示论题的内涵，使中心论点得到深刻的阐发，其作用是分析透彻，说理深刻。它们的先后次序一般是不可以互换的。意思是一层一层先后蝉联的。

例文

诗意地生活

07年高考湖南考生

太阳每天东升西落，行人每天匆匆而过，我们都在看似平静的生活里奋力的拼搏。若说诗意地生活，在我看来并非海明威仰望乞力马扎罗之雪时的浪漫，不是梭罗独居瓦尔登湖畔的寂寞。而是在纷繁现世之中，留一方净土种理想，然后一刻不停去奋斗，直到收获人生一片金黄麦田。

理想。是第一层境界;"独上高楼，望断天涯路。"是理想点燃星星之火，是理想洗去茫茫尘埃，是理想让我们一眼望断天涯，开始追寻之旅。泰戈尔曾说："我诗中的天堂正是我心中的理想。"正是心中有理想才会奋力去追诗意的天堂。诗意地生活，首先要有一个理想，不论它是黯淡还是光辉，也不论它是渺小还是伟大，若无理想，春天的繁花如何盛开出绚烂，夏日的星辰如何闪烁银辉，人生之路，如何扬帆起航，冲得一片诗情?

奋斗。是第二层境界："衣带渐宽终不悔，为伊消得人憔悴。"柳永在《风》中诉说对伊人的思念，生活的诗意，等待奋斗去实现理想。现出中，诗意地生活，便是拿起奋斗的斧劈开理想的石，卷起千层浪来比万丈豪情。昔秦始皇定下一统天下的理想，便每一步稳扎稳打，步步为营北击匈奴收复河套，南制百越，收为象郡。奋斗的脚步一刻都不曾停止，终于待得麾灭六国，横扫中原的壮观场面。奋斗让理想熠熠生辉，让人生之路越走越宽，承起生命不可承受之重，潇洒自由，踌躇满志，擎起人生一片艳阳天。这等人生，谁人敢说不诗意?

收获。是第三层境界："蓦然回首，那人却在灯火阑珊处。"当奋斗之泉灌理想之田，秋天，便是收获的季节。这一片金黄的麦田，折射出一段闪亮的人生之路。且不论这"麦田"是大是小，也不说这收获是否等值付出，只要是收获，便已是一种结果，成功了便收获鲜花与掌声，失败了，便收获一段经验几多教训，然后从头再来。就像国学大师季羡林曾说："活一世，就像作一首诗，你的成功与失败都是那片片诗情，点点诗意。"收获，是收获理想，收获奋斗，收获一段诗意的人生。

我们的生活虽不似李白"人生得意须尽欢，千金散尽还复来"的豪迈，但理想让它明亮，奋斗让它真实，收获让它有一片金黄的款款诗意。

用执着打破命运的锁，让生活活出诗意，种下理想，不懈奋斗，相信终会有"雁引秋心去，山衔好月来"的收获。

评：本文运用层进式。中间三级理想、奋斗、收获一层层深入，先后层次不可互换，另外，本文文采斐然，诗意盎然，"拿起奋斗的斧辟开理想的石"等比喻句用得新颖贴切。三是材料新鲜，积累丰厚，文章用到的材料，古今中外不下10处。

第四种对比式(论证结构)

对比式论证，指文章从正面和反面取材、论证，也即"应该怎样"、不应该怎样"--各层次既独立又相互支撑，全方位地对问题进行论述。

例文：

宽恕别人，就是解放自己

当一只脚踏在紫罗兰的花瓣上时，它却将余香味留在了那只脚上。这就是宽恕。

一个精神病人闯进了一位医生的家里，开枪射杀了他三个花样年华的女儿;他却仍为精神病人治好了病。这也是宽恕。

多一份宽恕，多一位朋友。多一份仇恨，多一个敌人。

宽恕别人，就是善待自己，仇视别人就是仇视自己。

宽恕别人，就是解放自己，心灵一片纯净。

评：作者没去论述宽恕的必要性，重要性等等，而是紧紧围绕着"选择"，反反复复地说出"选择宽恕"的好处，和"选择仇恨"的恶果。通过一次次的对比论证，让人接受"宽恕"的心灵选择，而抛弃"仇恨"的心态。

第五种，启感式(论证结构)

启是启示类，感是感想类。共同特点是先叙材料，后发感想。感想类还可边读边感，如文学评论。根据材料写议论文的基本写法是先叙材料后发感想。这种写法由"引""证""联""结"四步构成

例文：

可以填平鸿沟

某校高二(1)学生暑假想承包一个冰柜，既可尝到课本外的知识又可减轻家里经济负担，但良好的想法、一腔的热情得不到父母的理解，因而伤心已极，离家出走。从这件事中，我们可以清楚地看到，父母与孩子之间思想上已出现了一道鸿沟。由此我们不得不发出呼吁：两代之间应互相理解。

随着改革开放的深入，人们的观念也在不断更新。年轻的一代容易接受新事物新观念。他们的想法、做法都与上一代有着这样那样的不同，这时父母不应该一概否定他们甚至责骂他们。时代不同了，我们怎能要求孩子一成不变呢?作为父母，应与孩子多接触，多了解，不要让彼此的距离越拉越远，形成一道真正不可逾越的鸿沟。同样，作为孩子，也应设身处地地为父母着想。也许他们是有点守旧，不大能接受全新的东西，但他们是出于一片关心。记得报载一初中女学生成绩不好，常受父母责打，终因厌世而自杀。她死后，父母哭得死去活来。若她的父母真的不关心她，又怎会如此之伤心呢?因此，多与父母沟通，多告诉父母自己的想法，两代人的思想就会自然而然地融合在一起。

父母与子女之间存在思想上的差距，这已不是一个罕见的现象，为此而离家出走，弃世自杀的孩子时有所闻。唯今之计，父母所该做的是少一点严厉的批评、打骂，多一点真诚的关怀，而孩子则该多体贴父母，理解父母的心情，切不可轻易悲观厌世。

从一个中学生的离家出走，我们应该警惕，不可再让那条"沟"广大下去理解，理解与热忱，是填平它的唯一途径。鸿沟，是可以填平的，但需要两代人共同的努力。

本文为典型的"引--议--联--结"的结构形式。引材料，简明扼要;明观点，要言不烦;发议论，情理相生;联现实，有的放矢;作结论，善于照应。观点鲜明，结构严谨，标题形象，语言准确。

第六种：比喻式(论证结构)

比喻式认证，是一种用具体、生动、形象的事物作比喻来证明较抽象道理的论证方法。

例文：

象棋哲学

象棋，确实是一个富于智慧的发明。一盘棋就是一个小的规范社会，每个棋子都有自己的行为规范;车行线、马行日、象飞田、炮打隔山子，小卒子一去不复返……正因为各有各的行为规范，大家都按规矩办事，才使这个小社会有条有理，妙趣横生，使下棋的人百下不厌，其乐无穷。

下棋的人必须按棋的规矩办事，这是获得棋趣的前提，假如有人不讲究规矩，随心所欲，来邪的，要横的，这棋局就会乱了套，其中的乐趣也就烟消云散了。

规则是象棋的根本，在规则之内，下棋的人可以运用自己智慧，可以灵活地调兵遣将，一招一式都显示着自己的谋略和思考，因而在小小象棋盘中，在规则的基础上，任人想象，任人发挥，变化莫测，极为有趣。

象棋的基础是规则，规则的基础是公平。包括老将在内，都有严格的行为规范，并不折不扣地执行。

棋局中没有闲子，每个棋子都有自己明确的职责，或负责进攻，或负责守卫，或负责配合，总是各司其职，没有一个滥竽充数的。棋子一致对外，同仇敌忾，从不搞"窝里斗"不干勾心斗角，同室操戈的蠢事。为了大局的胜利，每个棋子都随时准备做出牺牲。……

这种棋局中的哲学已经超越了原始的竞技范畴，它暗示给世人的是谋生之道，为官之道。对于一个口口声声标榜热爱法制的社会，游戏规则就是平等，就是没有法外之外、权外之权，这一条适合于平民百姓，也适合于国家之首。

[议论文写作方法有哪些

导语：很多同学谈英语作文而色变，大家似乎都特别怕写作。其实要把英语作文写成高分不外乎就是多背，多看，多练，多积累，多仿。趁着还有时间，建议考生要抓紧复习提升，下面是高分作文写作的方法，17年的考生认真看看。

一、了解意图，抓住精髓

近年来的大作文非常玄妙，值得细品。首先，很可能大作文正在经历由时事向哲理过渡的重大变革，这在2001年、2002年、2004年、2007年、2009和2010年真题上表现得最为明显。其次，出题人将尽量用图画来表达意图，而不借助或少借助图中或图旁的文字，这样意义表达的会更深刻，对考生的思考力和判断力的要求也就更高。第三，图画的含义深刻，可以接受的解释也较多，但要想取得高分，必须紧扣图画，把握住其中的精髓，最深刻地表达其核心的意义。

二、扣紧主题

写大作文时切记要扣紧主题，切不可离题太远，导致最后回不来或时间不够写不完。另外，各部分之间的比例应适当，第一段不要太长。与主题相关的关键词语一定要用对，否则会影响分数。

三、看清要求

有的同学一看到写“网络”，就立即联想到这方面最火爆的话题“网络成瘾”，将主题确定为此。有的同学干脆将之转变为自己看到过的文章——“网络的利与弊”。这些都是不正确的做法。写大作文时，首先要减少语言的错误，提高语言的准确性。语言错误有许多种，有的是小错误，甚至可以忽略不计，而有些是大错误，是让老师看到后不得不扣分的错误。另一方面就是增加闪光点，除了结构清晰外，闪光点主要指好的词、词组或句型，一是使用恰当，二是要有变换。上述这两点都不容易，而结合起来就更难了。如果文章分为三段，那么起始段、结尾段和中间段落的开始部分是非常关键的。对于背诵的好词、词组和句型，一定要和具体的行文联系起来，融入到文章中去，不仅要用对，还要用好，避免给人突兀的感觉。

四、避免投机取巧

近年来，有些考生有投机的心理，结果却很惨烈。有的考生准备了万能模板，直接往上套，这样的效果并不好。正如有的较为激进的阅卷老师所说，这些考生是想通过不诚实的手段得到不属于他的东西，这样的人应该得到惩罚。实际上这些考生中有的水平还不错，如果坚持依靠自己，咬紧牙关奋力拼搏的话，结果会是不错的。

综上所述，对于作文这一部分来说，大家应该首先了解不同文章的特点和规律，而后用心地学习范文并进行模仿，然后练习全文写作并请老师批改再细细揣摩。相信通过这样的过程，大家的写作一定会有长足的进步。

1策划名称（策划主题）

2 策划者姓名（小组名称、成员名称）

3 策划制作年月日

4 策划目的以及策划内容之简要说明

5 策划之经过说明

6 策划内容之详细说明

7 策划实施时之步骤说明以及计划书（时间、人员、费用、操作等计划表）

8 策划之期待效果、预测效果

9 对本策划问题症结之想法

10 可供参考之策划案、文献、案例等

11 如有第二、第三备择方案时，列出其概要

12 对策划实施应注意之点及希望事项

当项目内容相对简单时，有1-6各项就可以了；如果为了实施简便起见，把7、8两项加进去会更好；如果要更详细地说明时，9-12就有必要加进去了。

b.写策划书的基本技巧

★ 策划内容要简单明了而且具体

策划名称（策划主题）：要尽可能具体地写出。比如，“培训策划书”，仅仅这样写是不够的。必须要清楚地写出“XX年X月公司全体营销人员第一期培训策划书”。

当然，也可以把名称简单写为“公司第一期营销培训策划书”，但一定要加上副标题：“于XX年X月以全体营销人员为对象”。

策划者姓名（小组名称、成员名称）：写明所属部门、职务、姓名。若是小组形式，就写出小组的名称、负责人、成员的姓名（包括所属部门、职务）。如果有外界人员参与的话，也应明白记载。

策划制作年月日：这是指编制完成时的日期。为方便起见，通常都以评审日或前三日为准。如果完成时间已久的话，可以写为某年某月某日编制，某月某日修正，较接近评审日期，则印象较为深刻。

策划目的以及策划内容之简要说明：要很技巧地把策划目的、要点用简短的几行写出，同时也把策划的核心构想或画龙点睛之处明确地写出。

策划之经过说明：策划主题何以被提出，策划活动何以会进行，又是经过何种程序去完成等，这些缘起及经过都要加以交待。因为时间、人员、费用等都有一定的限制，所以你可以在此预作伏笔，辩解说无法充分作策划。当然，藉口和理由太多的话，会影响策划的说服力和信赖性。

策划内容之详细说明：这是说明策划内容的正文部分。表现方式要简单明了，使评审的人一看一听就很容易明白。不要单单用文字表示，可适当地加入一些图表。这时尤其要考虑对方的理解力和习惯，千万不要只站在自己的立场自导自演，不亦乐乎。

策划实施时之步骤说明以及计划书（时间、人员、费用、操作等之计划表）：对策划的实施操作步骤、程序都应做成计划。这些实施程序、时间表（从准备执行到成果之综合整理以至反省时间）等各项计划都要附在计划书里。至于费用计划、人员计划、作业计划、对外委托部分，也都要编制成计划书。

★ 要有效果与结果的预测

策划之期待效果、预测效果：对于该策划实行之后所能期待之效果与预测可得到的效果，应尽可能依据足以信赖的根据来提出。同时，费用与效果所表示出来的效率，或对公司内外无形有形的效果等，也要说明清楚。

对本策划问题症结之想法：不论什么策划，要达到一百分是很困难的。对策划中出现的短处、问题症结不应回避，要在汇报中一一列明，并写出自己的想法。

可供参考之策划案、文献、案例等：从说服的观点来看，如果能把本公司或其它公司的成功例子，或文献上记载的成功案例拿来作为参考，合格的可能性就会增加。

对策划实施应注意之点及希望事项：策划书是以实施为前提而编制的，有许多要特别注意的事项，对这些要做成备忘，并且很技巧地把它们整理出来附在策划书上。

★ 同时准备第二方案、第三方案

当拟定策划书时，并没有硬性规定一定只能做一个策划案。对于同一个主题，同时做出两个或三个策划案也是可以的。当然，有时策划人员会过于自信，认为自己的工作是完美无缺的。但从企业的实践而言，在对策划进行审查时，一定会有种种的意见出现，所以事先准备替代方案是明智的。

有经验的策划者会预测审查者可能提出的反对意见，或者他们的习惯，然后准备第二案、第三案。首先把第一案提出，当反对意见出现时，你就可以马上说：“事实上我也认为这有缺点，所以我就准备了第二套方案”。由于第二案已经包含了对第一案的意见和批评，所以审查人员不得不赞成。更周到的策划人员还往往准备第三套方案，万一第一第二都通不过时，还可以利用最后一套来巩固防线。总之，与其让第一案一遭否决，就使自己全军覆没，倒不如事先准备后备方案，使成功的概率大为提高。

★ 突出重点，勿面面俱到

在策划过程中，过分贪求是要不得的。贪求无厌表示一个策划里面纳入太多的构想，变成目标过多。

对一个善于思考的人来说，就某个问题产生很多的想法是个大优点，但如果想把过多的想法都纳入策划之中，这是一个危险的陷阱。若策划书中的观点和想法太多，就未免太过于热闹，这样一来，到底哪个是策划的焦点和主体、哪一个效果是最可期待的，就变得模糊不清了。

一个优秀的策划人员一定不可贪心，他们会把构想浓缩，即使有很好的方案，只要与主题无关，就会舍得删除，留待下次再用。要记住：适当的舍弃是重要的策划技术。

英语写作要拿高分其实并不是很难，只要掌握了一定的词量以及写作方法就有可以能拿到高分。下面是语文迷为大家整理的英语写作高分秘诀，希望对你有帮助。

一、中考英语写作的概述

你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗?实际考试中，许多学生却常常有“无话可说”的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态，取得高分呢?

归根到底这是一个英语基本功——单词、短语和句型的问题。

英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升，必须进行多次的写作练习。因此，必须合理地设置训练步骤，遵循从初级到高级，从简单到复杂的原则去练习，经过一段写作实践之后，写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点：1、内容要完整。2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。

二、中考英语写作的评分标准

1、老师拿到的标准

写作水平的高低和文章的好坏，分数是最直接的评分标准，也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准?什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章?

评分标准：

(1)整篇作文满分20分，其中内容8分，语言8分，结构4分。

(2)内容贴切，句子流畅，用语准确，加整体印象分1分。

(3)不满60个词，少1——5个词扣0.5分，6——10个词扣1分。

(4)所有给出问题涉及的三项内容，每少一项扣3分。

(5)每个拼写，大小写，标点符号等错误扣0.5分;同一的拼写错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

(6)语法错误每项扣1分，同一错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

2、老师想看到的标准

语言(8分)：

词——固定搭配、高频重点词汇;

句——复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子!

内容(8分)：(总、分)论点、论据支持句;简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。

结构(4分)：

语言结构——句子重点突出、内容清晰;

内容结构——论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系;

句数控制——对于相对内容的句数掌握;

亮点、出彩点——排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。

三、扣分

内容方面：要点缺失，可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“Iwanttodosomethingformyschool”，若没有写一件具体的事情，是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻，没有实际内容，也会扣1-2分。

字数：少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上，标点符号不算，少了就要扣分。

但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看，16分以上的作文，没有少于75字的，甚至少于80字的也少之又少。

当然，也极少有超过100字的，因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个，在格子下面大约还有2行的空间，可以加20字左右，再多阅卷人就很难看清了，也会影响卷面的美观。

所以，同学们如果想让作文得到高分，最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

语法和拼写错误：每个扣0.5，重复错误不计;

标点错误：每4个扣0.5。

四、加分

作文的组织结构分。就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。只要文章中有1个亮点，基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点，是可以提前准备的。

“万金油”式的复杂句型，例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等，只要同学们多操练几次，几乎是一定能用到作文当中，从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分。很多家长(微博)和同学，尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学，都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项，但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验，在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的，而是在第一遍读完全文之后，心里已经形成了一个“印象分”，然后再细读第二、三遍，把印象分分配到各个打分部分。

因此，这个“印象分”就非常重要，而同学们的书法，也正是在这个环节，影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生，如果书法不好，一定要注意。

在我们当前的小学英语教学中，教师往往只组织大量的听、说、读的活动，而忽视对写的有效训练;就是在训练“写”，也只是写写单词、写写句型和课文，并没有深入到培养学生“写”的综合技能。部分教师甚至还存在着一些错误的认识，认为写作教学和训练过于费时，影响教学进度;写作作业难批改;写作教学枯燥，易降低课堂的活力;英文写作对小学生而言太难了等等。但是，儿童语言能力的发展是综合的，听、说、读、写各项能力之间互相制约，互相促进，任何一项能力的滞后都会影响到其他能力的发展。我们应该更新教学观念，设计一些符合学生认知规律、实效性较高的写作活动，促进学生英语技能的全面发展。下面是我对小学英语写作教学一些浅显的看法。

一、 由易到难，培养学生的写作兴趣

对于小学生来说创造性地运用语言确实有一定的难度，所以在写作教学中，教师应针对儿童的年龄特点和语言水平，设计难易适中且充满童趣的写作任务。俗话说得好，兴趣是最好的老师。要培养学生对英语写作的兴趣，首先就要有对英语学习的兴趣。而且要将低、中年级学生的直接兴趣慢慢培养成高年级学生的间接兴趣。尤其是对于低年级的学生词汇量有限，教师更要根据教材的主题或语言内容设计学生易完成的写作任务。如对于中年级的学生，教师可能将阅读材料中的一些关键词或词组挖空，让学生联系上下文猜词填空。如通过填词练习让学生描述动物：

My pet

I have a _______. It is _______ and ________. It has got _____. It has got _______ and ________. It can ________. It can _______, too. It eats _______. My parents like _______ very much. We are ______ friends.

这种填词的练习，既能训练学生的阅读能力，又能培养学生初步的语篇意识，并为高年级的写作打下了基础。循序渐进的学习，既能让学生体验成功，也能让学生建立写作的信心和兴趣。

二、抓好课本教学，夯实英语基础

要想写好一遍好的英语作文，离不开单词的积累。单词是一篇作文最基础的部分，过分强调它是不妥，但却也不能忽略。强大的单词积累是写好一篇作文的后盾。所以，不管在课堂上，还是在课后，都要强调学生掌握好单词的拼写和单词的运用，夯实英语写作的基础。

在小学，学生的主要学习时间是课堂学习时间。学生的主要知识来源于课本，课本是学生学习的根本。课本给学生提供基本的句型,语法知识，词汇等。所以，对于课本中的内容，可适当要求学生背诵，小学生善于模仿，通过背诵课文，一些句子就会在学生心中生根发芽，学生就会有意无意地模仿这样的句子进行写作。课文中的句子一般来说是很规范的，学生的写作也会较规范。记忆中的课文也是学生写作时句子处理的依据。凭语感和课文结构，利用个人的智慧和对作文题目及要求的理解，学生会写出语法正确，句意通顺，结构严谨规范的作文。

三、 广泛阅读，拓展知识面

古人云“读书破万卷，下笔如有神” ， 阅读是写作的基础，大量的、广泛的阅读，才能加强学生理解和吸收书面信息的能力，有助于巩固和扩大学生词汇量，增强语感，丰富学生的语言知识，了解英语国家的文化背景。实践证明，学生平时课外阅读面越宽，语言实践量越大，运用英语表达自己的能力就越强。通过日积月累的积累，学生在自然的习得中学得大量了的英语单词、句子，形成较好的语感。为学生更好地写作打下了坚实的基础。但在选择课外阅读材料时，还要注意：文章太易，不利于知识的提高，文章太难会挫伤学生阅读英语的积极性。这就需要教师做好充分的阅读准备，选择好难易适中的文章

广泛的英语阅读还可以让学生尽可能地了解英汉差异。许多学生写英文短文，都习惯用汉语去思考。写出来的句子，读起来很拗口，句意生硬，令人费解。甚至有的学生将汉语句子逐一对照译成英语单词，拼凑成句子。如：上个星期天，我爸爸坐船去了上海。译文成了：Last Sunday ,I father sit ship go to Shanghai. 令人啼笑皆非。究其原因是学生不明白英汉两种语言表达上的差异。如，汉语中没有时态和语态的复杂变化，只借助于助词“着，了，过”。而英语则有复杂的时态和语态变化以及动词短语，介词短语等一些固定搭配，动词与其主语的一致，称谓的一致等等。让学生进行广泛的英语阅读可以降低这样尴尬的机率，在不断的阅读中拓展知识面。这样才能在实际运用中应用地恰到好处，英语写作才能更规范，更标准，更符合英美人的表达习惯。

四、培养学生的写作热情

众所周知，写作和口语都是语言输出的重要方面。写作是人们学习、运用英语的综合技能的表现，教授学生英语写作能够检验和巩固学生综合的语言知识，在写作过程中，学生有一定的时间去思考、组织、修改、判断，有利于培养和提高学生的语言综合能力;能让学生去辨别口语语体和书面语体的异同，尤其是不同的句型、表达方式和选词造句;能增强学生的自信心，哪怕正确地写出一句、两句话或一小段，一旦受到鼓励，学生都会欣喜若狂，学习英语的兴趣会更加强烈;有利于培养学生直接用英语思维的习惯，尤其是限时写作，学生必须在规定的时间内完成规定的内容，他们就不可能先用母语思考，再译成英语，而是直接用英语来思考;写作可给予学生发挥自己的想象力和创造力，作为老师应仔细观察并珍惜学生的每一次创举，并能及时地对该同学给予肯定和高度赞扬，鼓励他大胆地、尽情地去想象，那么学习英语就没那么枯燥了，写作的热情也会日渐高涨了。

积极带领学生参加教育在线，让他们把自己的作品放在网络上，一方面向别人学习的同时也可以感受到众人欣赏自己作品的那种欣喜;选择优秀的学生作品进行投稿，如《双语阅读》和《小学生英语报》等这些学生常见的刊物，对作品发表的同学进行奖励，这样更能够激发他们的写作欲望。

五、由浅入深，开展扎实的写作训练

写作和任何形式的知识一样都是可以通过训练加以提高的。基础知识和能力并重，听、说、读和写并举。在平时的教学中可应充分利用一切可以利用的机会启发、引导学生提高自己的写作水平。如遇到优秀的句、段或篇提示学生注意欣赏作者的表达法，把它们作为范例，在自己写作中加以模仿和运用。又如遇到英汉表达方法不同之处，提示学生注意英语的正确表达法，切忌出现汉语式的英语。要帮助学生养成正确运用标点符号的好习惯，切忌一点到底的错误方法。

1、坚持循序渐进的训练原则。

用学过的词、短语或句式，模仿课文中的表达法造句。换课文中的人物、时态、语态或体裁等改写课文。将打乱顺序的句子按事件发展的时间顺序或逻辑关系等整理成一篇完整的短文。总而言之，写作要先易后难，先短后长，先写好正确的句子逐步过渡到围绕一个人、一件事、一个观点去写有中心的文章，由不限定时间到限定时间，由限定字数少到多，由一句话日记到一段话日记，由看图作文到命题作文，经过日记，看图写作的训练，学生在写作能力上有了一定的提高，英语表达能力也有很大的进步。这时，可根据学生的教材，就每个单元不同的学习内容提供一个命题作文给学生练笔。这些题目紧扣他们学习的内容，书本上的内容给他们写作提供了模仿的对象，而且跟他们的生活也息息相关。

2、分层要求，注意讲评，鼓励优秀，耐心帮助差生。

对学生的要求不能一刀切，对学习好的要求要高，对学习差的要求要适当低一些。充分利用板报、专栏进行优秀作文展览，经常帮助差生树立信心，掌握写作方法和技巧。英语作文讲评过程中要经常指出优点，以利模仿，指出缺点，警示避免。在训练写作时，要少给学生完整的范文。因为如果经常给学生范文，很容易让学生产生依赖性，不愿意自己动手去写。而是等着老师念范文，自己去背。长此以往学生肯定会背烦的，背烦了就更不愿去写了。会造成一个恶性循环。不利于提高学生的写作水平，更不用说培养语言能力了。

3、小组合作，共同提高

对于一些难度较大、范围较广的写作内容，可以通过开展合作写作来完成。在合作写作的过程中，他们有机会互相交流，集思广益，取人之长，补已之短;他们可能学习写作，指导写作，分享作品。例如：在六年级教学My favourite festivals 这一主题时，让学生以小组形式搜集各节日的有关资料，然后集体讨论，一人执笔写作，最后交流。在合作中写作，既给学生留有独立思考的空间，又可促进他们互相帮助与学习。

4、适当指导

学生动笔写作前，教师要给予必要的指导，不是给个题目或者一幅图，就要求学生动笔写。为了使他们少犯错误。教师还要经常性地列举错误的表达法，提醒学生注意避免。在批阅作文时教师要随时标出学生错误之处，并要随时记录学生所犯错误，把学生的错误加以归类总结，把普遍性的错误提出来，让学生集体改错，使他们的语言表达尽可能的正确规范。

六、鼓励学生资源共享，共同进步

在平时的教学中，我鼓励学生大胆地阅读课外英语资料，鼓励学生搜索网上的英语资料，学生的作品通过不同的方式与读者交流，读者包括教师、同学和家长。让学生各自交流作品的方式有朗诵、出墙报、制作英语小卡片，制作手抄报，写好读书笔记等，将全班学生的手抄报装订成册，搜集全班学生的各种作品，本班学生的作品互相交流，同年级不同班的学生作品也互相交流阅读，集中群体的智慧，内容丰富多彩，五花八门，既适合他们的年龄特征又能供学生课余阅读，拓展视野，达到交流学习的目的，我还设想将学生的电子手抄报发送到我校校园网，以供更多的学生欣赏。除此之外，在评价学生的写作作品时，做到有的放矢，灵活有序，实施本人评价、小组评价，家长评价和老师评价，对学生的进步及时充分的肯定。

总之，英语写作需要平时一点一滴的积累，每一步都不能少，持之以恒的训练。作为英语教师，需要不断的探索和总结。