2015年中考提高英语作文写作技巧【实用3篇】 作文（20篇）

掌握作文的写作技巧，对于小升初考试很重要，下面是小编整理的如何掌握写作技巧作文，欢迎阅读。

一、审题

这是写作文首先要做好的事，否则，就会直接导致“文不对题”，“下笔千言，离题万里”。怎样才能审好题呢?根据通常的作文题目的形式来看，一般可分为命题作文和材料作文两大类。对命题作文的审题，就是要审查给定的文章题目确定的具体要求，审清文题意图，明晰题外要求，确定“题眼”。通过审题，明确作文的内容范围、时间范围、数量范围、人称范围、处所范围等。不能超出给定的范围。对材料作文的审题，主要从两个方面去把握：一是与材料的思想内容要“形影不离”，二是与作文形式的要求“丝丝入扣”。

1。命题作文

我们先重点谈一下关于命题作文的审题，要注意做好哪些事情。

确定内容范围

有的题目，对写作内容做出规定。所以，审题时，要确定题目规定的内容范围：记人的，要记什么人;叙事的，要叙什么事;写景的，要写什么景;状物的，要状什么物，等等。

精彩习作-----童年趣事

童年，是一方没有莠草、污秽的净土，是一片无遮无拦明朗的天空。这里流淌的纯真与甜美，总会使人产生难以忘怀的回忆。

记得我4岁那年，迷信的奶奶告诉我：“要是剪掉了胳膊上的毛，会变成疯子。”幼稚而好奇的我听了以后，半信半疑，手痒痒的，老是想试试看，但又怕家人和亲戚为我担心。可是没试，就老是惦记着，越惦记，就越是想试。

于是，我准备马上试。我拿出那可怕的剪刀，用颤抖的右手慢慢地靠近左手胳膊上的一根毫毛。刚要剪，我又停了下来。心想：“我要是真的变成一个疯子，会不会像老鼠过街一样人人喊打?爸爸、妈妈和奶奶会不会不再疼爱这个傻孩子了?”我越想越害怕。我犹豫了许久，才把胳膊上的毛剪掉了。一剪完，我什么都不顾地钻进被窝里，不知不觉就睡着了。醒来时，我发现，我还是原来的我，一个正常的小女孩。于是，我不顾一切，高兴地蹦到奶奶身边，撒娇地说：“奶奶呀，奶奶!我今天剪了胳膊上的一根毫毛，可没变成疯子啊!”奶奶听了以后，笑了笑，摸着我的小脑袋，没说什么。

这件童年趣事已留在我记忆的闸门里。但随着年龄的增长，我懂得了：凡事要相信科学，不能相信迷信。

精彩点击

①小作者通过回忆的方式，记述了剪胳膊毛的故事。这件事既是童年发生的，又十分有趣，符合文题要求。

②事情的过程交代得很清楚，人物心理描写生动、逼真。

③结尾点明从中懂得的道理，深化了文章主题。

知识要点：1、议论文是议论说理表达作者的见解和主张的文章。2、议论文的三要素包括论点、论据和论证。3、写简单的议论文，努力做到有理有据。

考试说明：我们在报刊上、书籍中经常看到的政论文、社论、短评、小评论、杂感、序跋、宣言、声明、开幕词、以及用文字记录下来的讲话稿、报告等都属议论文。议论文在"两个文明建设"和日常生活中有着极大的作用。我们必须努力学习和掌握这种文体的写法。

1、议论文的三要素

每一篇议论文，都离不开论点、论据和论证。因此，鲜明的论点，确凿的论据，严密的论证，是议论文的三个基本要素。

(1)论点，是作者对要议论的问题所持的见解或主张，是议论文的灵魂，起着统帅全文、纲举目张的作用。确立论点是写好议论文的前提。议论文的论点有以下5点要求：

①正确。写议论文的目的是为了宣传真理、明辨是非、分清正误、区别美丑，所以，思想观点正确是首要的。

②鲜明。作者在文章中必须旗帜鲜明地表明自己的观点，毫不含糊地说出自己的见解，使读者一目了然，明确理解。

③严密。论点的表达必须周密严谨，无懈可击，不给持有异议的人以可乘之机。

④集中。在一篇议论文中，只能提出一个中心论点，全篇文章始终围绕一个论点展开论述，把道理说深说透，解决问题。要求集中，也就是要避免发生论点转移，后文的论说跟前文的论点有变化，或者概念上混淆。

⑤深刻。文中提出的论点，应该是作者对于事物的新鲜、独到的见解，能够深入地揭示事物的本质，而不是一般化的老生常谈，以便更有力地说服读者，给人以深刻的启迪。

写议论文时，要注意把中心论点和分论点交代清楚。中心论点是议论文的基本观点，它是全文的主旨和核心，在文章中起主导作用。从属论点是说明中心论点的论据，是为中心论点服务的。

提出论点的形式是多种多样的，一般大致有以下四种：一是开头提出论点。二是结尾提出论点。三是篇中提出论点。四是论点贯穿在全文中。通常的写法，以①②两种为主，习作议论文也应以这两种方式为主，然后进而学习后两种写法。

(2)论据，是用来证明论点的事实和道理。因此，论据包括事实材料和道理即理论材料。事实材料中又包括正面和反面事实材料，另外，数据材料也是其中一种。选择事实材料和理论材料要遵循哪些原则呢?

对于正面的事实材料，首先是真实性原则。论据真实，论点就可靠;论据不真实，论点就可疑。其次是典型性原则。就是要求选用那些能够深刻揭示事物的本质，亦即具有广泛代表性的材料作论据。一个论点，往往有许多论据能够从不同方面、不同角度来证明它。但是在可以论证它的众多论据中，总有一些是最恰当最有说服力的论据，就是典型的论据。此外，还要遵循新颖性原则。人们在阅读文章时，容易被新颖的材料所吸引，也容易对陈旧的材料产生厌恶。因此，对事实论据的选择，也必须遵循新颖性这一原则，重新轻旧，求近舍远，在"新"字上下功夫。

对于反面事实材料应以有衬托作用为原则。议论文为了把道理讲深讲透，需要多角度地分析、论证论点，这就要求我们从不同角度去选择论据，既要选择正面的材料，从正面阐述事理;也需要选择反面材料，从相反角度剖析事理，正反对照，以反衬正，突出中心论点。反面材料补充不能说透的结果。

对于数据材料应遵循科学的原则。从表面上看，数据只是几个简单的数字，其实它有丰富的内涵，往往是众多劳动的结晶、辉煌成绩的表现、不懈努力的反映，或者是浪费破坏的记录，将科学的数据引进议论文，能增强论证的效果，具有无可辩驳的说服力。

理论材料就是选用通过实践证明是正确的经典理论家的名言，科学上的公理、定律以及尽人皆知的道理等等来作论据，以证明论点的正确性。引用理论材料作论据，必须遵循以下几条原则：首先是可靠性原则。作为论据的依据，被引用的理论材料一定要确凿可靠，不论是引用名人的原话，还是引用大意，首先应搞清作者是谁，不可张冠李戴，把孔子的话当作他人的话来引用。如果是引用原文，一定要核对原文不要抄错;如果是引用大意，一定做到对原文内容能够正确概括，做到准确可靠。其次是针对性原则。引用理论材料的目的是为论证某个观点服务的，切切不可牵强附会，无的放矢，架空议论。再次是引伸性原则。这是说在引用精当的材料作论据后，不能就此完事，不作分析，这样有引无证，不能充分发挥论据的作用。正确的做法是在引用理论材料之后，紧跟着就要对理论材料进行科学的推论，从中推导出新的含义，生发出新的思想，进而推动文章的论证。此外，还有简明性原则。引用理论材料作论据，目的是证明观点的正确，对观点的进一步阐述和推导，还要靠自己去论证。如果引用过多的理论材料，以引带论，效果会适得其反。

(3)论证，就是用论据证明论点的过程和方法，使论据与论点之间有机地联系起来，构成一个统一的整体。论证的方法，一般都是先提出论题，经过论证、分析后得出结论。论证的过程和方法，有的逐层剖析，有的边分析边作结论，有的用设问引出问题进行论证。

写议论文要求做到层次清楚，推理严密，合乎逻辑，说理透辟，不论立论还是驳论都要具有说服力。

2、立论和驳论

议论文从论证方式看，一般分为立论和驳论两种。

(1)立论立论是对一定的事件或问题从正面阐述作者的见解和主张的论证方法。写立论性的文章，必须做到：

①论点要正确、鲜明。正确就是论点本身要符合马列主义、毛泽东思想和邓小平理论，符合客观实际，并经得起实践的检验。鲜明就是说作者必须旗帜鲜明地表示肯定什么，否定什么，赞成什么，反对什么，决不可含含糊糊，模棱两可。

②论据要真实、充分。就是说，必须举出足够的事实或公认正确的道理，证明论点的正确性。

作为论据的事实，包括有代表性的确凿的事例或史实，以及统计数字等。用事实作论据，有很强的说服力。

用科学道理作为论据，也具有极大的说服力。如用自然科学的原理、定律和公式等作为论据，也能有力的起到证明论点的作用。

③论证必须符合正确的推理形式。写立论性的文章，要言之成理，合乎逻辑。论点统帅论据，论据证明论点。论据必须足以证明论点，论点必须是从论据中推断出来的必然结论。

(2)驳论驳论是就一定的事件和问题发表议论，揭露和驳斥错误的、反动的见解或主张。

驳斥错误的、反动的论点有三种形式：

①直接驳斥对方的论点。先举出对方的荒谬论点，然后用正确的道理和确凿的事实直接加以驳斥，揭示出谎言同事实、谬论与真理之间的矛盾。有的文章，首先证明与论敌的论点相对立的论点是正确的，以此来证明论敌的论点是错误的。

②通过批驳对方的论据来驳倒对方的论点。论据是论点的根据，是证明论点的。错误和反动的论点，往往是建立在虚假的论据之上的，论据驳倒了，论点也就站不住脚了。

③通过批驳对方的论证过程的谬误(驳其论证)来驳倒对方的论点。驳倒了它的论证中关键问题，也就把谬论驳倒了。

总之，写驳论性的文章，还应注意以下几点：①要对准把子。写驳论性的文章，首先要摆出对方的谬论或反动观点，树起靶子。怎样树起靶子呢?通常有两种方式。一是概述。即用概括的语言，将所批驳的敌论复述一下。概述时，可适当引用一些原词句，但要有重点，倾向性要鲜明。二是摘引。即把反面材料的关键部分或有关部分，摘录下来，然后对准靶子，进行驳斥。②要抓住要害。鲁迅说："正对论敌之要害，仅以一击给予致命的重伤。"对谬论，一定要抓住其反动本质，深入地进行揭露和批判。③要注意分寸。对于敌人的******谬论和人民内部存在的错误思想，必须加以区别。对敌人，要无情揭露，痛加批驳，给以致命打击;对于人民内部的错误思想，就要本着"团结--批评--团结"的原则，决不可相提并论。

议论虽有立论、驳论两种方式，但两者不是截然分开的。破和立是辨证的统一。在立论性的文章中，有时也要批驳错误论点;在驳论性的文章中，一般也要在批驳错误论点的同时，阐明正确的观点。因此，立论和驳论在议论文中常常是结合起来使用的。

一、审好题

审好题是写出优秀作文的第一步，下笔之前考生要仔细阅读试题的相关要求及信息，如图画、图表、数字等，准确把握命题老师的出题意图。作文最忌讳上来就写，想到哪里写到哪里，不明确考点，凭自己的主观臆断来编故事。以20xx年考研英语一大作文为例，漫画部分显示，有两个游客坐在一只小船上，边游览边往河里扔垃圾，附近河面上漂浮着大量的垃圾，漫画下面有四个字：旅程之“余”。很明显，漫画立意在发展的同时要保护好自然环境。有的同学如果草草审题，盲目下笔，一旦出现文不对题，后果不堪设想。

二、列出提纲

考研英语的答题时间是很紧张的，因此要尽量压缩答题时间，考生们在平日的备考中也十分注重速度的练习。在作文的写作中，从构思到成稿时间有限，无法将大量时间放到列出详细提纲上，但是都教授认为，在最短时间内列一个粗略的关键词提纲还是相当有必要的。对原始材料分析归纳后形成一个基本的结构框架：如漫画所要表达的主题是什么，directions中的要求包含了哪些内容，文章段落应该如何组织，这些都要心中有数。只有在基本框架确定了的基础上，考生将具体内容填充完整时，才能思路清晰、行文流畅。可以说，列出提纲对考研英语作文写作起着事半功倍的效果。

三、开始写作

开始写作时一定要注意以下几点：

导语：美，时刻伴随着我们;美，在我们中间!下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的写作素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

在过去、现在和将来都永远是美好的东西，那便是真理。(托尔斯泰《五月的塞瓦斯托波尔》)

真理是喜欢公开交易的。——莎士比亚《亨利八世》

真理和正义有多种形式，它们和人的种族一样繁多，和时代、气候一样变化无常但它们的本质到处都是一样的;在翻天覆地的情况下，我需要抓住的正是这个不可摧毁的一致点。幸福的规律在一切人之间有它的共同之点，对于每个人来说，是他们道德发展的最高规律。这种发展经常变化，但规律是不变的。——《罗曼?罗兰回忆录》

如果你想独占真理，真理就是要嘲笑你了。——罗曼?罗兰《哥拉?布勒尼翁》

最伟大的真理是最平凡的真理。——托尔斯泰《世界名言录》

拳头是打不倒真理的。——高尔基《母亲》

真理就像劳动汗水一样，总是有一股强烈的气味。——高尔基《意大利童话》

真理的一边是自由，另一边却是限制。——《泰戈尔评传》

如果你不等待着要说出完全的真理，那末把真话说出来是很容易的。——泰戈尔《飞鸟集》

如果你把所有的错误都关在门外，真理也要被关在外面了。——泰戈尔《飞鸟集》

真理若是穿多了衣服，它反而显得俗不可耐了。——泰戈尔《春之循环》

无言纯洁的天真，往往比说话更能打动人心。——莎士比亚《冬天的故事》

不管是多么值得尊敬的人，我也决不会为他而颠倒黑白，把好说成坏。——泰戈尔《一个女人的信》

恶往往是昙花一现的，都要和作恶者一同灭亡;而善，则永世长存。(狄更斯《我们共同的朋友》)

大量的善和大量的恶，总是混合在一起，交互错综着的。——狄更斯《游美札记》

与善人行善会使其更善，与恶人行善会使其更恶。——罗曼?罗兰《弥盖朗琪罗传》

所有的人好象总是带有两重性的。在他们的胸腔里仿佛有一副天平，他们的心就好像天平的指针，在称善的和恶的重量时，指针一会儿倾向这一边，一会儿倾向那一边。——高尔基《三人》

作文水平也很大程度上影响了中考语文成绩的优秀程度，为了帮助大家写好语文作文，特别总结中考作文写作技巧以供参考。

一、抓题眼，把握表意重心

文章表意的重心就是最能体现文章中心的关键性词语，只有抓住了关键性词语，才能体现文章的特色，写出更好的作文。一般来说，偏正短语结构重在修饰语部分，如：《有意义的生活》，其表意的重心在“有意义”三个字上，审题时紧扣“有意义”三个字思考就可以了。再如：《充满活力的岁月》，其表意的重心在“充满活力”四个字，考生需要思考的是怎样通过具体的人、事、物，来诠释一个中学生对“活力”的理解与界定。

二、明限制，确定选材范围

限制的内容大致有时间、地点、对象、内容、数量等，审题时要弄清楚，作文时则不能越“雷池”半步。没有限制的内容，题目上没写，需要自己去想。因为只有想到没有限制的内容，才能找到选材的广阔天地，扩大选材的范围。

如：《发生在我身边的一件趣事》，题目限制了对象——我，内容——趣事，数量——一件，范围——身边，没有限制时间、地点。这样，写作时就可以不去考虑时间、地点因素，选材的范围大多了。《美丽的谎言》，明确规定了事情的属性——本身是带有欺骗性的，但其实质必须是善意的、美丽的;没有限制的有：对象——任何人，具体内容——欺骗的具体内容和经过，数量——N个谎言，范围——过去现在，身边远方等等，这些都可以作为写作的内容。

再如：《我想唱首歌》，题目虽规定了主题——褒扬、赞美生活，但没有限制赞美的对象、赞美的原因。如此，我们既可以为自己，也可以为他人唱首歌;既可以为个人，也可以为集体、为社会唱首歌;既可以写事，也可以写人……只要对生活有着欣赏与感激，对得失成败有自己的体验与思考，就能切中题意。又如：《充满活力的岁月》，虽要思考活力的表现，也要兼顾对“岁月”一词的理解，但对写作的主体——“谁充满活力”则完全没作限定。

三、展联想，深入挖掘主旨

充分发挥想象和联想，以题目为载体，向深层次挖掘，使自己的作文有深度，这也是得高分的重要一环。

如《妈妈，我长大了》这个文题，其关键在于对“长大”的理解。如果认为“长大”的含义只是生理、身体的变化，或是学会了某种生活技能，能够照顾自己，胆子变大了，能对付别人的欺负等等，那么这种理解就比较肤浅。而如果能够寓理于事，从不同的角度写正处于花季年龄的初中生成长中的追求、向往、烦恼和困惑，以及对人生的初步认识，写人生中的各种各样的责任感已经在心中出现，那么，这样的思考就准确而较深刻地把握了文题的含义。

四、巧构思，化抽象为具体

“一粒沙里见世界，一瓣花上说人情”。选材若太宽太泛，会给人“空”或“浮”的感觉。要解决这一问题，不妨采取“化大为小”、“化虚为实”或“化宽为窄”的方式，从细微处，具体生动地展现对生活的感悟。

五、炼语言，注重个性化表达

语言是作文最外在最鲜活的东西，无论是平实朴素的，还是充满文学韵味的，锤炼语言，使表情达意确切、形象、简约而意韵丰富，应是不懈的追求。

作文的开头是非常重要的，它对理清思路、引出下文、凸现文章的中心，都有着重要的作用。开头要引人入胜，激发读者阅读的兴趣。文章记叙了同学们帮洗鼻血这样一件事，从而揭示了同学们互相关心，团结友爱，生活在集体中多么幸福这一中心。

作文开头的方法，还有很多，像引用法，叙事法，故事引入法，提出问题法等等，不同体裁，不同内容的文章要行选用不同的开头方法，即使是同一篇文章，也可以有不同的开头方法。你看，同样一篇文章就有不同的开篇方法。因此，一篇文章怎样开头，采用哪种方法，一定要从文章中心表达的需要出发，适应不同体裁的特点做到新颖明快，言简意赅。

俗话说，良好的开端是成功的一半，我们只要掌握作文开头的方法和技巧，联系实际，勤于练习，就能写好开头，为写好全文打下基础。

开头的方法很多，常见有：

1．开门见山法。

这种方法是文章一开头，就直入正题，把文章所要叙述的主要内容直截了当地交代出来，让读者一看就知道这篇文章描写的是什么人、什么事、什么活动。这种开头一下子就能吸引读者的注意力，而且还不会跑题。例如《课间十分钟》一文开头：

下课铃响了，同学们快步走出教室，到操场上参加自己喜欢的课间活动，校园里顿时沸腾起来。这个开头就点明了时间——“下课”，地点——“操场上”，人物——“同学们”，事情——“课间活动”。非常直截了当。

2．提示中心法。

这种方法是一开头就点明全文的中心，使读者对文章的中心思想有一个明确的了解，我们看看下面的开头。

“生活在集体中间是幸福的，两年前，我深深地体会到这一点。”

这是《生活在温暖的集体里》一文的开头，

3．描写引入法。

描写人物和景物来开头，这种方法就是描写引入法。描写人物就是在文章的开头，对人物的肖像、服饰、神态、等进行描写，以达到人物在读者面前树立一个鲜明形象的效果，描写引入法中还有一种是以描写景物来开头，也就是在文章的开头对故事情节所处的自然环境或社会环境必要的描写，以起到交代背景、渲染气氛突出中心的作用。

4．设置悬念法。

在写事的文章中，我们常常把事情的结果或文中的某个片段放在开头来写，以引起读者的疑问，然后再记叙事情的起因和经过，这种开头的方法叫设置悬念法。这种方法可以激发读者强烈的兴趣，如《智斗奸商》一文的开头写到的：放暑假的第二天旱上，我和表姐一块儿去买菜。走到菜场的北口，我就看前面很多人。我和表姐紧走几步，也围了过去……

5．对比法。

在文章的开头，把不同的人和事物或同一个人和事物的不同时间，不同方面的情况作对比介绍。运用对比法可以使描绘的形象更为突出，增强文章的表达效果，给人留下深刻的印象。

6．回忆联想法。

由人、事、景、物、等引起回忆，联想、引出下文，展开情节，这种方法就叫回忆联想法。运用回联想法开头，给人一种亲切，自然的感受。

7．对话开头法。

以人物的对话开头。这种开头起笔自然，往往给人以新鲜的感觉。采用对话的形式开头，一定要把对话写得精彩有意义，紧扣中心。

抒情散文以抒发主观情感为出发点，以空灵飘逸见长，着力点在于准确表达感情色彩的语言运用上。

最大特点就是“形散而神不散”，往往借助具象，写景状物来抒发主观情感。文中的景或物是作者抒情的依托，作者往往将所要抒发的情感具象化，运用比兴、象征、拟人等手法，或写景抒情，情景交融，或托物咏志，有所寄托，以达到抒情的目的。

抒情散文有哪些分类？

抒情散文分为：借景抒情、因物抒情和以事抒情三类。

抒情散文有哪些特点？

1.抒情散文是作者激情的鲜明表现，换句话说，就是“文中有我，重在抒情”；

2.诗情画意，“登山则情满于山，观海则意溢于海”；

3.立意清新，精心结构

4.抒情语言表达方式的运用，具体地说，即： ①托物抒情； ②因事（人）抒情； ③借景抒情；

5.语言有准确、简练、形象、生动、音律优美的特色，是诗一样的语言。

常用抒情散文写作有六种格式：

1、静赏式

套路模式：进入景点→依次静赏→赏景联想→离开景点。代表篇目《荷塘月色》

注意：一要注意进入景点的缘由要自然，最好能点到主题上；二要注意多角度写主要的景物，至少要有三个角度；三要注意使用联想，旨在与开头所交代的缘由相照应，用抒发情感的方式来深化主题。

2、参游式

套路模式：参游起因→参游见闻。代表篇目《难老泉》

特点：作者是文中的穿线人，由作者的目击联想来描写景物、抒发感情。

注意：一要注意众多的景物应以作者行踪为线串联起来，移走换景，景不离步；二要注意每进一步，地点要交代明确，描写要虚实相间，这样才能清晰而深广；三要注意描写手法的使用，众多的景物要详略得当，详处着力描写，略处简要概述。

3、象征式

套路模式：物的概述→物的性格→由物及人。代表篇目是《白杨礼赞》。

特征：一用物来象征人，形在写物，旨左象征之人；二是卒章显志，篇末点旨。

4、情索式（并列式）

套路模式：情的缘起→情的积蓄→由情至人→情的归结。所谓情索，就是以情为线索，来连缀景物。代表篇目朱自清的《春》；

特点：看似处处写景物，实是处处借景抒情，只是为情感找一个假托物而已。关键是要善于将景物特征分解成若干个方面，从若干个点上来抒情。

5、怀念式

套路模式：睹眼前景→思从前景→抒怀念情。代表篇目郑振铎的《海燕》

6、叙史式

套路模式：一语统篇→分叙史实→抚今抒情。代表篇目《土地》。

导语：说到身残志坚，首先想到的是华罗庚、张海迪、霍金和海伦凯勒等等名人，在我们身边，也有很多身残志坚的励志故事，其中也不乏一些的励志名人名言。以下是小编为大家精心整理的关于身残志坚的相关素材，欢迎大家阅读参考!

说到身残志坚，首先想到的是华罗庚、张海迪、霍金和海伦凯勒等等名人，作家海伦·凯勒说：“知识就是我的幸福。”

名言佳句

1.冬天来了，春天还会远吗?——雪莱

2.世界上最快乐的事，莫过于为理想而奋斗。—苏格拉底

3.理想与现实之间，动机与行为之间，总有一道阴影。——爱略特

4.在理想的最美好世界中，一切都是为最美好的目的而设。——伏尔泰

5.实现明天理想的唯一障碍是今天的疑虑。——罗斯福

6.生活没有目标就像航海没有指南针。——大仲马

7.一个人的理想越崇高，生活越纯洁。——伏尼契

8.过去属于死神，未来属于自己。——雪莱

9.人的理想志向往往和他的能力成正比。——约翰逊

10.人类的心灵需要理想甚于需要物质。——雨果

11.抱负是高尚行为成长的萌牙。——莫格利希

12.每个人都有一定的理想，这种理想决定着他的努力和判断的方向。就在这个意义上，我从来不把安逸和快乐看作生活目的的本身——这种伦理基础，我叫它猪栏的理想。——爱因斯坦

13.有些理想曾为我们引过道路，并不断给我新的勇气以欣然面对人生，那些理想就是——真、善、美。——爱因斯坦

14.理想是指路明灯。没有理想，就没有坚定的方向;没有方向，就没有生活。——托尔斯泰

15.只要一个人还有所追求，他就没有老。直到后悔取代了梦想，他才算老。——巴里穆尔

16.人生重要的事情就是确定一个伟大的目标，并决心实现它。——歌德

17.具有新想法的人在其想法实现之前是个怪人。——马克·吐温

18.如果你怀疑自己，那么你的立足点确实不稳固了。——易卜生

19.不要只因一次失败，就放弃你原来决心想达到的目的。——莎士比亚

20.如果一个目的是正当而必须做的，则达到这个目的的必要手段也是正当而必须采取的。——林肯

21.不要放弃你的幻想。当幻想没有了以后，你还可以生存，但是你虽生犹死。——马克·吐温

22.人的活动如果没有理想的鼓舞，就会变得空虚而渺小。——车尔尼雪夫斯基

23.如果你想走到高处，就要使用自己的两条腿!不要让别人把你抬到高处;不要坐在别人的背上和头上。——尼采

24.就是在我们母亲的膝上，我们获得了我们的最高尚、最真诚和最远大的理想，但是里面很少有任何金钱。——马克·吐温

25.我宁可做人类中有梦想和有完成梦想的愿望的、最渺小的人，而不愿做一个最伟大的、无梦想、无愿望的人。——纪伯伦

26.青年人啊，热爱理想吧，崇敬理想吧。理想是上帝的语言。高于一切国家和全人类的，是精神的王国，是灵魂的故乡。——马志尼

27.我想揭示大自然的秘密，用来造福人类。我认为，在我们的短暂一生中，最好的贡献莫过于此了。——爱迪生

华罗庚身残志坚的励志故事

华罗庚初中毕业后，曾入上海中华职业学校就读，因学费而中途退学，故一生只有初中毕业文凭。 此后，他开始顽强自学，他用5年时间学完了高中和大学低年级的全部数学课程。1928年，他不幸染上伤寒病，靠妻子的照料得以挽回性命，却落下左腿残疾。20岁时，他以一篇论文轰动数学界，被清华大学请去工作。 从1931年起，华罗庚在清华大学边工作边学习，用一年半时间学完了数学系全部课程。他自学了英、法、德文，先后在国外杂志上发表了多篇论文。1936年夏，华罗庚被保送到英国剑桥大学进修，两年中发表了十多篇论文，引起国际数学界赞赏。1938年，华罗庚访英回国，在昆明郊外一间牛棚似的小阁楼里，他艰难地写出名著《堆垒素数论》。

张海迪身残志坚的励志故事

5岁的时候，张海迪因患脊髓血管瘤造成高位截瘫，但她身残志坚，勤奋学习，热心助人，被誉为" 当代保尔"。 在残酷的命运挑战面前，张海迪没有沮丧和沉沦，她以顽强的毅力和恒心与疾病做斗争，经受了严峻的考验，对人生充满了信心。她虽然没有机会走进校门，却发奋学习，学完了小学、中学全部课程，自学了大学英语、日语、德语和世界语，并攻读了大学和硕士研究生的课程。1983年3月7日，共青团中央在北京举行命名表彰大会，授予被誉为"80年代新雷锋"的张海迪同志"优秀共青团员"称号。1983年张海迪开始从事文学创作，先后翻译了《海边诊所》、《小米勒旅行记》和《丽贝卡在新学校》，创作了《向天空敞开的窗口》、《生命的追问》、《轮椅上的梦》等一百多万字的作品。现为山东省作家协会文学创作室一级作家。1993年张海迪通过考试和论文答辩，获吉林大学哲学硕士学位。1994年参加远南运动会。1997年入选日本NHK"世界五大杰出残疾人"。1998年起担任中国肢残人协会主席。2000年获得全国劳动模范称号。

桑兰身残志坚的励志故事

桑兰，出生于1981年2月，浙江宁波人，原国家女子体操队队员，曾在全国性运动会上获得跳马冠军。到今天为止，坚强的桑兰已经笑着度过了6年的轮椅时光。

1998年7月21日晚在纽约友好运动会上意外受伤之后，默默无闻的桑兰成了全世界最受关注的人。这确实是个意外。当时桑兰正在进行跳马比赛的赛前热身，在她起跳的那一瞬间，外队一教练“马”前探头干扰了她，导致她动作变形，从高空裁到地上，而且是头先着地。 遭受如此重大的变故后却表现出难得的坚毅，她的主治医生说：“桑兰表现得非常勇敢，她从未抱怨什么，对她我能找到表达的词就是‘勇气’。”就算是知道自己再也站不起来之后，她也绝不后悔练体操，她说：“我对自己有信心，我永远不会放弃希望。”

桑兰用她的行动应证着自己的诺言，在北大学习、加盟星空卫视主持节目、担任申奥大使、参加雅典奥运北京接力……她充满力量的笑容总能给人希望!

贝多芬身残志坚的励志故事

贝多芬是世界著名的音乐家，也是命运最糟的一个。童年，贝多芬是在泪水浸泡中长大的。家庭贫困，父母失和，造成贝 多芬性格上严肃、孤僻、倔强和独立，在他心中蕴藏着强烈而深沉的感情。他从12岁开始作曲，14岁参加乐团演出并领取工资 补贴家用。到了17岁，母亲病逝，家中只剩下两个弟弟，一个妹妹和已经堕落的父亲。不久，贝多芬得了伤寒和天花，几乎丧命。贝多芬简直成了苦难的象征，他的不幸是一个孩子难以承受的。 尽管如此，贝多芬还是挺过来了。他对音乐酷爱到离不开的程度。在他的作品中，有着他生活的影子，既充满高尚的思想 ，又流露对人间美好事物的追求、向往。对美丽的大自然他有抒发不尽的情怀。 说贝多芬命运不好，不光指他童年悲惨，实际上他最大的不幸，莫过于28岁那年的耳聋。先是耳朵日夜作响，继而听觉日益衰弱。他去野外散步，再也听不见农夫的笛声了。从此，他孤独地过着聋人的生活，全部精力都用于和聋疾苦战。 贝多芬活在世上，能理解他的人太少了，而唯一能给他安慰的只有音乐。他作曲时，常把一根细木棍咬在嘴里，借以感受钢琴的振动，他用自己无法听到的声音，倾诉着自己对大自然的挚爱，对真理的追求，对未来的憧憬。他著名的《命运交响曲》就是在完全失去听觉的状态中创作的，是贝多芬最杰出的一部作品，它的主题是反映人类和命运搏斗，最终战胜命运。这也是他自己人生的写照。 这是第一乐章中连续出现的沉重而有力的音符。贝多芬说：“命运就是这样敲门的。”他坚信“音乐可以使人类的精神爆发出火花”。“顽强地战斗，通过斗争去取得胜利 。”这种思想贯穿了贝多芬作品的始终。

1827年3月26日，一个雷雨交加的夜晚，音乐巨人与世长辞，那时他才57岁。贝多芬一生是悲惨的，世界不曾给他欢乐， 他却为人类创造了欢乐。贝多芬身体是虚弱的，但他是真正的强者。

霍金身残志坚的励志故事

霍金十三、四岁时已下定决心要从事物理学和天文学的研究。十七岁那年，他考到了自然科学的奖学金，顺利入读牛津大学。学士毕业后他转到剑桥大学攻读博士，研究宇宙学。不久他发现自己患上了会导致肌肉萎缩的卢伽雷病。由於医生对此病束手无策，起初他打算放弃从事研究的理想，但后来病情恶化的速度减慢了，他便重拾心情，排除万难，从挫折中站起来，勇敢地面对这次的不幸，继续醉心研究。

七十年代，他和彭罗斯证明了著名的奇性定理，并在1988年共同获得沃尔夫物理奖。他还证明了黑洞的面积不会随时间减少。1973年，他发现黑洞辐射的温度和其质量成反比，即黑洞会因为辐射而变小，但温度却会升高，最终会发生爆炸而消失。

八十年代，他开始研究量子宇宙论。这时他的行动已经出现问题，后来由於得了肺炎而接受穿气管手术，使他从此再不能说话。现在他全身瘫痪，要靠电动轮椅代替双脚，不但说话和写字要靠电脑和语言合成器帮。

虽然大家都觉得他非常不幸，但他在科学上的成就却是在他在病发后获得的。他凭著坚毅不屈的意志，战胜了疾病，创造了一个奇迹，也证明了残疾并非成功的障碍。他对生命的热爱和对科学研究的热诚，是值得年轻一代学习的。

海伦·凯勒身残志坚的励志故事

海伦·凯勒(Helen Adams Keller，1880年6月27日～1968年6月1日)，是美国一位残障教育家。 她生于美国亚拉巴马州，父亲亚瑟是位南方邦联老兵。她在19个月大时因为一次高烧而引致失明及失聪。后来籍着她的导师波土顿柏金斯盲人学校老师安·沙利文 (Anne Sullivan)的努力，使她学会说话，并开始和其他人沟通。1898年，海伦·凯勒考入了哈佛大学附属剑桥女子学校。1900年秋，再考进哈佛大学的雷地克里夫学院，这对于一个失明和失聪的人而言，可说是教人难以置信。最后于1904年，海伦·凯勒成功取得文学学士学位，而且成绩优异。而这么多年来沙利文老师则一直留在海伦·凯勒身边，并将教科书与上课内容写在海伦·凯勒的手掌上，让凯勒能了解其内容，可说是对海伦·凯勒不离不弃，因此海伦·凯勒一生均十分感激她。 从1902年4月开始，她又在莎利文老师的帮助下，开始在美国的一家杂志上连载她的自传《我的一生》(又译《我生活的故事》)(The Story of My Life)。第二年结集出版后轰动了美国文坛，甚至被誉为1902年世界文学上最重要的两大贡献之一。

半命题作文，是指命题者只提供一个不完整的作文命题，下面是小编整理的2017年中考作文指导：半命题的补题技巧，欢迎阅读。

补题是半命题作文至关重要的一步，补题质量的优劣直接影响到半命题作文水平的高低。具体来说，半命题作文的补题，应遵循如下几条原则：

(1)扬长避短，熟悉为先。

每个考生所擅长写作的文体往往是不同的，惟有扬长避短，方能奏凯考场。近年来各地的考场作文，对文体一般都不作限制，考生要充分利用这一点，补题时根据自己的文体特长，选填相宜的词语，将半命题化为自己最拿手文体的全命题来运营文思。

考场作文是一种“速成”作文，很难有充裕的时间来选材、构思。因此，考生在补题时，所选择的词语，应与自己平时库存较为丰富的生活经历相契合;所确定的内容，须是自己较为熟悉、感受较为深刻的生活事件或情感体验。因为只有写自己熟悉的人和事，才能有话可说、有情可抒、有感可发。如2001年河南题 “我深深感受到了____”，题目要求中列出的可供选填的词语有“成功的喜悦”、“失败的痛苦”、“集体的温暖”、“家庭的温馨”、“友谊的可贵、“诚实的可敬”、“虚伪的可鄙”等(也可不受以上词语限制，自行选词填补)，很显然，任何一位考生对上述诸种情感体验不可能有着同样程度的感知、拥有同样深刻的感受，这时他们就必须“趋熟避生”。

(2)创新求异，独树一帜。

为半命题作文补题，最易题目雷同、题材“撞车”，为避免这一点，考生在补题时，要充分运作求异思维。选词所表现的内容，最好是别人不曾经历过、不曾想到过、不曾抒写过，甚或根本遇不到、想不起、写不出的。为此，应尽量选择自己亲身经历过或是发生在自己身边的生活事件，尽量避开那些人人皆知的素材。如果考题没有强制一定要从提示语中选词，最好跳出提示，另选新词补题。如2004年河南卷文题一“我与____(小草、春天、智者、母亲等)的对话”，多数考生从提示语中选择“春天”、“智者”、“母亲”等词，但有一位考生却自出机杼，将文题补为“我和崇高的对话”，抒写自己一次真实而独特的心路历程，呼唤崇高人格的回归，充满情趣、理趣。

文有鲜腐之分，题有新俗之别。而题目的新俗在某种程度上决定着内容的鲜腐。半命题作文补题应打破惯有的思维定势，全方位、多角度地运动思维。思维发散得越开，联想和想像越奇特，则与其他考生的区分度就越高，内容就越新颖鲜活，文章就越能独树一帜。

(3)力避空泛，小处切入。

补题虚空浮泛、大而无当，是半命题作文又一高发的“写作事故”。中考作文，字数要求一般在600左右。要在如此短的篇幅中，写深写透一个主题，诚非易事。因此补题时就应“就实避空”，因为题目越空泛，相应地写作范围就越广，选材、组材的难度也就越大。半命题作文命题中设置的思维空白，为考生展开自由联想提供了一个广阔空间，可补入空白处的词语很多很多，一些考生往往就拿捏不准，如2005年无锡市作文题“精彩____(一幕、瞬间、人生等)”，按说以提示语中的“一幕”、“瞬间”入题，也非常不错，然而却有考生为了“创新”，将文题补成“精彩世界”、“精彩世纪”之类，范围越扩越大，文题越变越虚，最后写出来的文章大而空、虚而浮，事与愿违。

因此，要写好半命题作文，最好“小口径切入”，题目不要补得过大。如2005年济南卷文题一“拥抱____”，很多考生如此补题——“拥抱地球”、 “拥抱美德”、“拥抱生命”，等等。不是说这样的题目不可以写，而是说因为它们涵盖范围过大，写起来较难把握，容易流于泛泛而谈。如果将“地球”缩小为 “绿地”、将“美德”缩小为“宽容”、将“生命”缩小为“青春”之类，经营起来，可能难度会变得小一些。有一种以具体事物入题的补题方法，可有效地缩小写作范围。如2000年昆明题“我好想_____”，很多考生就采用此法，拟出了“我好想栽一棵苹果树”、“我好想去草原”、“我好想拥有一间书房”等范围具体的题目，降低了写作的难度系数。

(4)搭配得当，合乎逻辑。

选词补题，应注意词语之间搭配得当，合乎逻辑。首先，要合乎生活逻辑。如写作半命题作文“我第一次_____”，若补填“哭”、“淘气”、“做梦” 之类，就不符合生活事理。因为这些事情大都发生在人的婴幼儿时期，是难以界定“第一”的;而如果换成“领奖”、“说谎”、“远行”等词，则因为其在考生脑海留下的深刻印象，情理皆通。

其次，补题要前后照应，合乎题旨。如2001年唐山题“____谢谢你”，揣摩题旨，横线上所填内容当与“你”照应，应补填称呼或姓名，如“老师，谢谢你”、“对手，谢谢你”等。然而却有考生没有看出题目中的这种对应关系，填成了“辛苦了，谢谢你”、“再一次，谢谢你”等，明显与题旨相悖。相反，2005年厦门题“那一次，我读懂了____”，考场上一篇满分作文补的词语是“坦然”，文章写自己在与历经坎坷却豪迈依旧的大文豪李白、苏轼的对话中，领悟到笑对挫折的人生真谛。作者显然非常准确地破译出了命题者隐含在文题空白处的命题意图，所补词语，既切中题旨，又与文题中的修饰语“那一次”和动词谓语“读懂了”形成了和谐的搭配关系。

(5)思想健康，拓深主题。

中考作文，对文章思想的健康性和主题的深刻性也有着相当的要求。考生在文章中，应该尽量展现当代青年积极进取、昂然向上的精神风貌，唱响时代的主旋律。这里所说的思想健康，并不是要考生喊口号、说大话、唱高调，而是说文章所表现的内容，必须体现文化和文明的正确走向，符合健康的价值观和审美观，反映建设“和谐社会”的时代潮流，力避消极、颓废、暴力和享乐主义思想。如2005年深圳题“_____的味道”，应该说这是一个蕴涵很深的半命题，完全可以补出夺人眼球的好题目。然而令人遗憾的是，竟有考生补填“打麻将”、“抽烟”、“自杀”等词语，显而易见，这样的题目，内容是消极的，思想是不健康的，与正确的主题背道而驰，犯了方向性错误。

半命题作文题目补填的词语不同，主题揭示的深刻度也会有所不同。考生要想从作文考场上披锦而归，还必须学会开动真情和想像的钻头，向思维深处钻探、挖掘。大凡文章的主题，都可分为浅、中、深三个不同的层次，开挖时切忌浅尝辄止。仍以深圳题“_____的味道”为例，此文补题若停留在“物”的层次或 “感官”的层次，补填“西瓜”、“咖啡”、“冰激凌”之类，就滋味写滋味，必然俗气浅薄;若紧扣“味道”的涵义，往深处开掘，进入“事”的层次或“体悟” 的层次，补填“得奖”、“挨批”、“失败”等词，虽仍然平淡无奇，毕竟深刻多了;若再掘一锄，进入“情”的层次或“想像”的层次，补填“母爱”、“阳光”、“飞翔”等内容，兴许就能别开洞天，胜人一筹。

文题补写好了，文章也就变成命题作文了，这时同学们就可以按照命题作文的要求，动笔写作了。

古代诗人笔下的美景，曾陶醉了无数游人，也曾滋养了无数文人墨客，这些美丽的景色，今天还在吗?飞流直下三千尺，疑是银河落九天。两个黄鹂鸣翠柳，一行白鹭上青天。接天莲叶无穷碧，映日荷花别样红。漠漠水田飞白鹭，阴阴夏木啭黄鹂。

一水护田将绿绕，两山排阉送青来

细雨鱼儿出，微风燕子斜。

竹喧归浣女，莲动下渔舟。

阅读下列材料，你有何感想?

1.1985年，英国南极科考队在南极上空发现了一个巨大的臭氧“空洞”。1987年，德国科学家发现北极上空也有类似的臭氧“空洞”。后来才得知，全球各处都有臭氧被破坏的现象。没有臭氧保护的生物在强烈的紫外线照射下将无法生存。

2.据报道，人类每年向海洋倾倒600～1000万吨石油、1万吨汞、25万吨铜、100万有机农药，660万塑料……

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

在小学三年级，我们要想写好作文游什么技巧，下面是小编整理的三年级作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、抓阅读

阅读包括课内阅读和课外阅读。首先是课内阅读，我们在讲每篇课文之时，应除了让学生明白课文内容及思想感情外，还应从写作方法上给学生加以指导，如为了突出中心作者是如何选材的；写人记事的文章作者怎样通过人物动作、语言、神态、心理活动等将文章写生动；写景的文章又如何通过眼观、耳闻、鼻嗅等调动各种感官将景物描写得很美的等等。

其次是课外阅读，由于学生阅读得少，积累的不够，才会出现作文无话可说，语句平淡。对此我们首先要培养学生的阅读兴趣，这也要从课堂抓起。在读课文时，要运用丰富多样的形式来读，激发学生的读书兴趣。另外，我们在课外读物的推荐方面也应注意。对于三年级学生，我们应推荐些故事性、趣味性强的难度适中的一些故事；如童话故事、寓言故事，先由这些课外读物，提起学生的阅读兴趣，再逐渐到作文书籍、科技类书籍，再到小说、报刊等。兴趣是最好的老师，有了兴趣，不愁他们不读书，书读多了，视野开阔了、知识丰富了，写起作文来就会得心应手了，可谓是“读书破万卷，下笔如有神。”

二、抓修改

美国作家科德威尔曾说过“好作文是改出来的，而不是写出来”。还有“推敲”一词的来历等，都说明了作文修改的重要性。同一个意思有不同的表达方式，我们修改作文是要找到最恰当的表达方式。我们的同学，作文写完大多只读一遍，有的甚至一遍也不读，才会导致我们常常在改作文时出现的那些语句表达、标点符号不恰当闹出的笑话。有些作文我们可从学生模糊不清的表达中，能读出选材不错，感情很真挚，但由于表达问题，读来总不够舒畅，这样的作文，我们只要引导学生，让好好修改会是一篇佳作。对于三年级初学作文者，我们不妨进行几次集体修改作文。我在一次作文课上，将学生的一篇在语句、标点、用词上均有毛病的典型作文展示出来和学生一起修改，发现学生都会修改！他们七嘴八舌，将此篇作文的毛病一一改过，改后的文章与原文有很大差别，简直是两篇作文！经过集体修改后，学生既掌握了修改作文的方法，又明白了作文修改的重要性。以后的作文，学生都能认真修改，有的还请同学帮着修改，作文效果一下子发生了质的变化。

三、抓讲评

作文讲评在作文指导中也尤为重要。我在上作文课时，尽量安排在连续的两节课中，一节课讲作文要求起草作文，一节课讲评作文（对初稿进行讲评），将典型的文章展示出来，师生共同找出优点和不足，分析原因，这样其他学生会在自己的作文中有则改之，扬长避短。更有利于学生总体作文水平的提升。

作文指导方法很多，我就我在三年级作文指导中总结的方法归纳出来和各位教师相互交流，以研讨出更切合学生实际的作文指导方法。

[三年级作文写作技巧

教学课件是辅助教学的多媒体教具，是现代教育技术发展的产物，具有很强的时代特点，也是教育现代化的标志之一。下面是小编整理的英语写作基础教程课件，希望对你有帮助。

一、课程教学目标

本课程为高等学校英语专业课程体系中一门英语专业知识课程，属专业必修课性质。通过本课程的教学，使学生能正确理解和掌握英语写作的基础知识和技巧，例如词汇的恰当用法、英语成分与各类型结构的多样化运用等，并能按照不同要求正确书写便条、信函和通知等应用文，缩写课文内容，组织提纲并根据提纲书写短文（150单词左右），正确使用标点符号。

二、先修课的要求

本课程面向英语专业一年级学生，学生应具备基本英语写作能力，达到英语专业入学时的各项要求。

三、教学环节、内容及学时分配

Unit 1:正确用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

通过举例及练习提升学生对词汇的敏感度，学会如何正确运用词汇；写便条。

【本章重点及难点】

辨析词汇不同侧面的意义，如：denotative & connotative meanings; affective & collocative meanings.

【教学内容】

1. Denotation and connotation

2. Attitude and collocation

3. False friends

4. Subject-verb agreement

5. Note-writing

5. Follow-up exercises

Unit 2:恰当用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

学会鉴别不同文体，即正式、常用、口语和俚语，并根据不同文体使用恰当的词汇；写较为正式的便条。

【本章重点及难点】

避免中式英语

【教学内容】

1.Various styles in English

2. Chinglish

3. Writing notes to older people, strangers and business clients

5. Follow-up exercises

Unit 3:简洁精确用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

纠正学生习作中常见的冗余用词，帮助学生建立分类记忆词汇的习惯从而精确用词；写正式通知。

【本章重点及难点】

提高学生对词汇细微差别的敏感度，尤其是名、动、形容词，培养良好的词汇学习的习惯。

【教学内容】

1. Conciseness

2. Preciseness

3. Effectiveness

4. Modifiers and related problems

5. Informal notice

Unit 4：基本句型

【学时】 3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

通过例句比较，使学生理解并学会选择恰当的词汇作主语，避免动词的名词化倾向；明确主语通常的位置及主语后置时的影响；总结何种情况下使用主动语态或被动语态的原则；归纳一般现在时的较特殊用法及单句中时态的匹配；掌握虚拟语气的常见用法；学写正式通知。

【本章重点难点】

构建最基本句子框架；句中词序的变化对语意重心的影响。

【教学内容】

1. Subject and its position

2. Active voice & passive voice

3. Tense and sequence of tenses

5. Mood

6. Extended notice

7. Follow-up exercises

Unit 5:基本句型的扩展（一）

【学时】 3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

使学生掌握扩展基本句型的方式之一：增添修饰成分，并会正确使用七种类型的修饰语；正确使用定语从句达到强调作用；为段落缩写。

【本章重点难点】

使用修饰语扩展句子，以及修饰语的顺序。

【教学内容】

1. Attributes

2. Relative clauses

3. Incomplete sentences

4. Word order

5. Precis for short paragragh

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 6基本句型的扩展（二）

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

学会使用分词和独立主格结构来扩展句子；为较长篇章写缩写。

【本章重点难点】

复杂分词结构的使用；学会在两个或以上的动词中正确选择用作分词结构的动词；避免悬垂修饰语、连写句、连串句。

【教学内容】

1. Participles

2. Absolutes

3. Comma-split sentences

4. Fused sentences

5. Precis for longer articles

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 7连接句子的方法之一：并列

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

了解并列在单词、词组、从句和句子这四个层面的使用；学会不同类型连接词的用法；掌握并列句的具体用法和功能，以及更为复杂的并列句的使用，例如并列词的重复或缺失、用分号连接的并列句和有插入结构的并列句。

【本章重点难点】

如何正确应用并列句；错误的并列。

【教学内容】

1. Coordinate structures

2. Coordination at the sentence level

3. Functions of coordinate sentences

4. Advanced usages of coordinate sentences

5. Lack of unity & faulty parallelism

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 8连接句子的方法之二：从属

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

辨析并列句与从属句在表达语意上的区别；正确使用名词性从句，定语从句和状语从句；理解从属句的两大功能；学写提纲。

【本章重点难点】

从属句的有效使用；从属句与并列句的选用原则。

【教学内容】

1.Subordination vs.coordination

2.Types of subordination

3.Functions of subordination

4.Effective use of subordination

5.Misplaced modifiers

6.Basic format of a short composition

7.Follow-up exercises

Unit 9句子多样化

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

使学生理解句子多样化的重要性，并从句子长度、句子结构、语意重心和句子开头这四个方面达到句子多样化的目的；正确使用倒装，避免逐字翻译；学写短文开头。

【本章重点难点】

达到句子多样化的方法；如何通过重新排序和特殊结构达到强调的目的。

【教学内容】

1. Ways to achieve sentence variety

2. Inversion & word-for-word translation

3. Introduction of a short paragraph

4. Follow-up exercises

Unit 10标点符号

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

理解常用标点符号的功能和用法；学写短文结尾。

【本章重点难点】

标点的用法；插入语的三种不同标点组合的区别。

【教学内容】

1.Functions of punctuation

2. How to end a sentence

3. How to join sentences of equal weight

4. How to punctuate within a sentence

5. The conclusion of a short composition

四、教学策略与方法建议

本课程采用课堂讲授和写作实践相结合的教学方式。课堂讲授使用多媒体教学，由教师讲解写作技巧引导学生发现使用规律，结合小组活动和个人训练等各种形式提高学生的写作学习热情。在课外布置适量的写作任务，及时操练和巩固所学的写作知识和写作技巧，加强对语言的实际运用能力。

五、教材与学习资源

本课程教材为邹申主编的《写作教程（第一册）》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2005。

What are the purposes of places such as museums and how should they be funded?

Nowhere in the world has the issue of museums progress been so much debated as in our society. Nowadays, more and more museums have to face the serious economic problem. Therefore, many people doubt museums existent signification. In this essay we will discuss the existent signification of museum and the solutions, such as buying by government and supporting by society

Firstly, museum is considered the historical symbol that it exhibits traditional culture of a nation. Nations of difference have different culture and history. The museum is the best way to let the younger generation savvy their ancestors history and let visitors and foreigners know varied culture and tradition.

Secondly, museum could save plenty of cultural relics that they are not destroyed and lost. The equipments of museum could perfectly save all kinds of displays.

As a result of the future of museum, the outlook is somewhat grim. People already realize this problem exists and are trying to solve it.

For one solution, the government ought to buy all museums. If museum belong to government, it will means main economic problem of museum is solved.

The second solution is that society ought to donate lots of money to maintain development of museum. The museum protects our history and culture, so we have obligation to support progress of museum.

The important thing is to protect current museums before its too late. Otherwise we will lose them.

博物馆的发展问题诸如博物馆和怎样资助他们的目的是什么？在世界上没有一个地方博物馆的进步问题如此多的辩论在我们的社会。如今，越来越多的博物馆不得不面对严重的经济问题。因此，许多人怀疑博物馆的存在意义。在这篇文章中我们将讨论博物馆与解的存在意义，如购买政府和社会的支持首先，博物馆被认为是具有民族传统文化符号的历史。国家有不同的文化和历史的差异。博物馆是最好的方式，让年轻一代精明的祖先的历史，让游客和外国人了解不同的文化和传统。其次，博物馆可以保存文物丰富，他们不被破坏和丢失。博物馆的设备能够很好地保存各种显示器。由于博物馆的未来，前景是有点残酷。人们已经意识到这个问题的存在，并试图解决它。作为一个解决方案，政府应该购买所有的博物馆。如果博物馆属于政府，这将意味着博物馆的主要经济问题。其次，社会应该捐了一大笔钱来维持博物馆的发展。博物馆保护我们的历史和文化，所以我们要支持进步博物馆的义务。重要的是要在为时已晚之前保护现有的博物馆。否则，我们将失去他们。

[中考英语关于博物馆的发展问题作文

提分技巧之一

从人生的体会方面去思考，写人一定要写出人生体验。写满分作文最重要的就是要有一种责任感，大的方面不说，自己对自己也是有责任的。其次是家庭责任感，再次是社会责任感，每个人在每个阶段的责任感是不一样的。对于人文精神这一方面的作文，人们会更加关注，也会更加容易得到阅卷老师的喜爱。

提分技巧之二

从哲理思辨角度去思考，要把作文写得有深度，就要带着辩证思维去思考、去挖掘，任何事物之间都是有一定的联系的，比如，成功和失败，它们在表面上看起来，是明显对立的，大家都偏爱成功而讨厌失败，但如果从哲理方面去思考的话，失败也未必就是那么痛苦，失败可以给人经验，让人从经验中再次找到成功的动力，并且时刻提醒自己，一定不能再大意。如果作文内容能够反弹琵琶，那说不定能够收到更好的效果。

提分技巧之三

结合时代特点，任何一个时代都有其自身的特点。所以，同学们在写作文的时候，需要在日常生活中多关注一些时事，看一些报刊评论等等，这样有利于同学们紧跟时代去思考问题。

提分技巧之四

作文素材的累积至关重要。不同的作文题材需要不同的作文素材。所以，对于情感、道德、科技、自然、文化问题等这些方面都需要积累一些。积累的多了，作文也就有题材了，这是满分作文形成的基础。

写作文要创新，要出彩，切忌重复过去，切忌重复别人。小编收集了2017年小升初作文指导：游记作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

在节假日，小学生在父母和老的在节假日，小学生在父母和老师的带领下，到公园和游览区欣赏景物、陶冶性情。如果将游览时看到的景物，所听到的声音，所产生的联想，所获得的感受，按照一定的顺序，有重点、有感情地记录下来，就是一篇游记。写游记有如下一些要求。

(一)写游记必须写清游踪

要记住从什么地方到了什么地方，每个地方的名称，以及每个地方的方位。这样读者才能搞清楚你先到什么地方。后到什么地方，才能确定你所要描述的景物的具体位置以及它的特征，唤起读者对你所游览之处的神往之情。同时，也使文章福有条理，层次清晰。

(二)要留心观察

观察是写好游记的基础。游览时，不能走马观花，要仔细观察。所谓仔细观察，就是要看景物的形状、颜色、质地是怎样的，静态下什么样，动态下又是什么样，等等。只有这样，在写作时可选的材料才多，才便于把景物写具体、写出特点来。另外，在观察的时候，还要按一定的顺序，或由近及远，又远到近;或从上到下，从下到上;或从里到外，从外到里;或从中间到两边，从两边到中间;或从整体到局部，从局部到整体。按照这样顺序去观察，彩绘全面，描写时彩绘有条理。

(三)要做记录

学生游览的时候，看的东西多，去的地方也比较广，一时很难记住，就是当时记住了，过后也难免遗忘，不利于组织作文。为了避免这种情况，游览时要求学生带上笔和本，边观察、边记录，随看随记，就不会忘记了，写作文的时候还便于选择。另外，公园和修蓝区的有些景物带有介绍。例如，辞经管是何时建造的，经历了哪些发展阶段，占地面积是多少，包含着怎样动人的故事和美丽的传说等等。这些资料很有可能成为学生作文时的宝贵材料，应该要学生记录下来。 在游览之后，要求学生及时地把自己观察到的和记录的材料整理归类，看看哪些是属于作文需要的材料，哪些需要详写，哪些需要略写，做到心中有书，为下一步作文做好准备工作。可以要求学生按照下面的表格整理材料。

拯救地球

地球是我们人类共同的家园，人类只有一个地球。“低碳、环保”已成为当今时代主题。目前，我市英语学会准备在全市中学生中开展以“Save(拯救)our earth”为主题的英文征文活动。现请你根据以下三个方面的提示，写一篇80词左右的短文参评。

1。重要性：只有一个地球

2。主要问题：污染、疾病、灾难

3。措施：停止污染、保护大自然

参考词汇：disaster n。灾难 protect V。 保护

注意：(1)文中不能出现真实姓名、校名;

(2)文章标题已给出，但不计入总词数;

(3)可适当发挥，以使行文连贯。

★ 范文

Let’s Do Something to Save Our Environment

It is recently reported that some rivers and lakes have dried up in South China。 A lot of fishes died。 The bottoms of the rivers and lakes have become grass land。 The water is becoming less and less because of the bad weather。

So everyone should do something to save our environment。 First， we should save every drop of water， such as turning off the taps after using it and recycling the water。 For example， we can water the plants and clean the rest room with our used water。 Second， we should save energy， such as less turning on the lights and turning off the lights when we leave;Do more walking， more bicycling and less driving and so on。 Third， we should ask our government to control the pollution from the factories。

Let’s act now from everything to save our environment。 Don’t let our tears be the last drop of water in the world!

178

规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。下面是小编为你带来的关于英语论文的写作格式和规范，希望对你有帮助。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)(摘自《外语与外语教学》1999年第8期，原文：“英语论文写作规范”作者 刘新民)

记叙文要交代清楚事情发生的地点、时间;要把事情的经过、因果写明白。一件事，总离不开时间、地点、人物、事件、原因、结果等六个方面的内容，因此，只有把这些方面写清楚了，才能使别人明白你写了一件什么事。下面是小编为你带来的中考记叙文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、记叙文的写作技巧

1、悬念、巧合、误会

2、疏密、虚实

3、抑扬

4、张弛

5、蒙太奇与意识流

二、写作注意事项

1、作文字迹工整，

2、卷面干净整洁，

3、开头结尾要简练，

4、动笔之前要拟题，列提纲，

5、平时要多积累优美的字词句子，用时心不慌。

声明：版权归版权所有人所有，影响到利益，请及时通知我们进行删除。

三、如何开头?

我们集中突破式主动作文写法总纲对开头段的作用是这样要求的：开头段，突破一个“巧”字， 做到别开生面，抓住读者。具体说来有三条是需要我们谨记的：1、接触主题，点到为止，留下伏笔。2、短小简洁，干净利落，活泼生动。3、心中有读者，引起阅读兴趣。开头段不能拖拖拉拉，短小生动为上，抓住读者往下阅读是首要的。

开题，这里的题指的是本文要表达的思想感情，也就是主题。比如一篇习作要表达的是快乐的主题，那么在开头段就应该显露出快乐的笔调和气氛;反之 就该显露出悲伤的情绪和环境。

强调我们设计开头段的目的，重在吸引读者，而不是为了开头而开头，为了巧而巧，甚至是卖弄辞藻，华而不实。如果真的是那样，就会弄巧成拙。还有要注意用自己的语言表达自己的情感，不能生搬硬套，故作深沉。记住，与读者交流我们的情感思想才是写作的真正目的

都说作文开头难，最难就难在思路，没有思路，就没有开头的方向;思路不清，就会咬着笔头无从下笔;思路错误，就会劳而无功，通篇尽失。开头段这样重要，其方法就最简易。

总起来说，有三条：

1、和文章题目联系上。

2、和主要内容联系上。

3、和自己(主人公)的心情联系上。

开头段写作方法：

1、开门见山法。

2、先闻其声法。

3、设问开头法

4、景物描写法

5、肖像描写法

6、联想开头法

7、倒叙开头法

8、名人名言开头法

9、议论开头法

10、综合开头法

四、如何结尾?

结尾段不是可有可无的文段，它承担着十分重要的任务。

一般来说，结尾段的任务有三条：

1、收束全文，完成主题。

2、拓展情境，升华主题。

3、含蓄优美，引人遐想。

理清结尾段的思路，经常运用的有五个：

1、和文章题目联系上。

2、和开头段联系上。

3、和重要内容联系上。

4、和事情结果联系上。

5、和自己的心情联系上。

结尾段的方法。

1、 自然结尾。

2、抒情结尾

3、含蓄结尾

4、总结结尾

5、启发结尾

6、点题结尾

7、照应结尾

9、议论结尾

10、综合结尾

做到“结尾有力”的主要途径是：

一、把事件的结局交代清楚。

这种顺着情节的发展，以事情的终结作全文的结尾，干净利落，不枝不蔓，事情结束，文章也就结束了。

二、语言含蓄，发人深思。在记叙文中，作者以独特的认识和理解，写下深刻含蓄的结语，力求意味深长，发人深思。

三、结尾同开头呼应。结尾照应开头，能使文章结构谨严，浑然一体。

四、篇末点题，突出中心。篇末点题，尤如画龙点睛，这“睛”点得好，会使全篇顿生光彩。画龙点睛式的结尾，能帮助读者悟出全文的深意，给人留下深刻的印象。

小结：

记叙文的结构模式相对而言变化较多，运用时可以使用单一的某种模式，也可以将其中的两种或几种合并使用。但不管如何变化都会遵循如下规律：

开头(引出材料)→主体(具体描写，用生动的细节突出某种特点)→结尾(适当抒情或议论点题)。必须注意的是：段与段之间、材料与材料之间要有过渡，结尾要照应。熟练地掌握这些基本模式对快速构思和行文无疑是大有裨益的。

【提要】英语四六级四级信息 : 20176月英语四级写作高分黄金句式【1】

▌列举法

列举法是四级写作中常用的方法，一般用first, second等一系列标志词引出原因或者可能的影响等。列举法常用的素材有：

引出列举

1. There may be a combination of factors which contribute to/are responsible for/can explain ______. 也许有一些因素造成/可以解释______。

2. There are probably three/many/several/a variety of reasons for this dramatic/significant increase/decline in ______.引起______显著增长/下降的原因有三个/许多/几个/很多。

3. Some reasons can explain this trend. 一些原因可以解释这一趋势。

4. Why ______ ?为什么______?

5. The causes of ______ are varied. They include______ , perhaps the main cause is ______. 造成______的原因有很多，包括______,主要原因可能是______。

6. The reason for this is not far to seek. 这一问题的原因不难发现。

7. It is no easy task to identify the reasons for this phenomenon which involves several complicated factors. 要找出这一现象的原因并非易事，因为它涉及若干复杂的因素。

8. There are numerous reasons why ______, and I would explore only a few of the most important ones here. ______的原因有很多，这里我只想探讨其中几个最重要的原因。

9. There are many reasons responsible for this phenomenon, and the following are the typical ones. 导致这种现象的原因有很多，以下是其中比较有代表性的。

10. There are many reasons explaining this case. As for me, I regard the following as the typical ones. 有很多原因可以解释该问题。就我而言，我认为以下原因比较典型。

11. A number of factors could account for/contribute to/lead to/result in the change of ______. 引起______变化的因素有很多。

分条列举

1. In the first place, ______. In the second place______ .首先，______。其次，______。

2. First,______ . Second, ______ . 首先，______。其次，______。

3. To begin with, ______. Secondly, ______. Last but not least, ______.首先，______。其次，______。最后但并不是最不重要的，______。

4. The first reason is that ______. The second one is ______. The third is ______. 第一个原因是______。第二个原因是______。第三个原因是______。

5. First of all, ______. Secondly,______ . Furthermore,______ .首先，______。其次，______。另外，______。

6. For one thing, ______. For another, ______.一方面,______。另一方面，______。

7. Firstly, ______. Secondly, ______. Thirdly, ______.首先，______。其次，______。再次，______。

8. Another reason why I disagree with the above statements is that I believe______.我不同意上述观点的另一个原因是我认为______。

▌对比法

对比法是指通过对比两种截然不同的观点来陈述其中的利弊，从而得出自己的结论。对比法常用的素材有：

1. The advantages gained in ______ outweigh/are much g

如何把作文写好一直困扰着各年级的学生，下面小编来给大家介绍提高写作的方法，希望对大家有帮助!

1.阅读优秀的作品：这是显而易见的，但立竿见影的方法。如果你不读更多的好作品，你就不知道如何写出更好的作品。优秀的作家都是从阅读别人的佳作开始，接着开始模仿，最后超越他们，形成自己的风格。尽可能的多读名著，在看内容的时候，更要留意文章的问题和写作的技巧。

2.尽可能多的写：每天都写，如果可能话，每天写几次。你写得多了，也就写得好了。学习如何写作和其他的学问道理是一样的，熟能生巧。写写你自己，写写博客，向出版社投稿。只是写，全情投入的写，练得越多，你的写作水平就提升得越快。

3.随时随地记下你的灵感：随身带一本小笔记本(纳博科夫身上装满了小卡片)，当你对你构思的小说，文章，或是小说里的人物有什么灵感的时候，马上记下来。当你听别人谈话时的只言片语而所有顿悟时，或看到一段散文诗或是一句歌词让你很感动时，都可以马上当他们记下来。灵感总是转瞬即逝，你及时的记录下来，便可以成为你写作的素材。我的习惯是，为我的博客要写的文章列一个清单，不断的补充它。

4.专门的写作时间：每天找一个没有任何打扰的时间段作为专门的写作时间，让这成为习惯。对我而言，清晨的时间是最佳的，午饭，傍晚，或者深夜的那段时间也可以。无论你是做什么工作的，把写作当作每天必须完成的任务去做。每天至少写半个小时，当然有一个小时更好。若你同我一样，是一个全职的作家，那么你需要写更多的小时，请你不要担心，这只会让你写得更好。

5.随便涂鸦：面对整张的白纸，整版的白屏，无从开始，肯定恐怖。你会想：我还是看看邮件或是小憩一会了吧!先生，千万别这样。马上开始写，马上打字，你写什么没有关系，只是让我听到你敲键盘的声音吧。只要你开始写了，什么都好办了。像我的话，我喜欢先敲上我的名字和文章的标题，这应该不难吧，然后再慢慢的展开情节，全身心地融入进去…关键是：开始可以随便写写，随便涂鸦，但是尽快开始写正文。

6.集中精神：写作是一件一心一意的事情，在嘈杂的环境或是同时干着别的事情，是不可能写好的。写作需要一个安静的环境，需要一点点柔和的背景音乐。即使是最低要求，你也需要在全屏(没有其他软件得干扰)的条件下，使用WriteRoom， DarkRoom，Writer这些写作软件，不受打扰的写作。关掉邮箱，关点MSN和Gtalk，关掉电话和手机，关掉电视，清理掉书桌上无用的东西。清除与写作无关的一切杂念，现在就是写作的时间，好像把自己放进一个盒子里，在没有任何打扰下进入写作状态。

7.先计划，再写： 这好像和“随便涂鸦”有些矛盾，实际上不是这样。在坐下来正式写之前，先做个计划或是脑子里先预演一下，这是非常管用的办法。每天跑步的时候想想要写的东西，或是散步的时间来个头脑风暴;然后把想到的记下来，做一个扼要的提纲;等真正准备好开始写了，可以很快的展开，因为思路和想法都有了。这里，有一个构思小说的三部曲，可以参考这个：Snowflake Method.

8.创新： 你需要模仿名家，这并不意味你要跟他们写得一模一样。你可以试试新的写法，从这里学一点，从那里学一点。渐渐地，你就会有了自己的风格，自己的文体，自己的思路。试试一些不一样的表达，或创造一些与众不同的表达方式，每一方法你都可以尝试，看看它到底怎么样，不好就不用呗。

9.修改： 你开始构思你的文字，然后试着写，让故事情节展开，最后你需要回过头再看看你都写了什么。这点很重要，很多写手一旦写好就不想修改，已经费时费力地写好了，还要再花时间修改，实在是一件吃力不讨好的活。但如果你想写得更好，你就要学会如何修改。好的作品是经过反复的推敲和修改而成的，这会让你的作品从平庸中脱颖而出。看看你写的东东，不仅仅是那些拼写和语法错误，还有那些无意义的词，混乱的结构，和让人搞不懂的句子。修改的目标是：更清晰，更直接，更鲜活。

10.简明扼要： 这是你在修改的过程中，最重要的一件事情。一句句，一段段的修改，把无关主题的统统都删掉。一个短句比一段冗长的废话更具说服力，大白话比晦涩的专业术语更受欢迎。记得：简单就是力量。

11.富于感染力的句子：在短句中使用富有感染力的动词，当然，并没有要求每一句都是这样，你需要变化。但是，多试试能够吸引人的句子。而且，你没有必要等到你要修改的时候再用，你刚开始写的时候就要考虑这个问题。

12.获取别人的反馈： 闭门造车不会有任何进步，让别人读读你的文章给你回馈，最好有经验的作家和编辑。他们见多识广，会给你很中肯和有见地的建议。认真的听，即使是一些批评，也接受它，忠言逆耳，这样只会让你写得更好。

13.是骡子还是马，拉出来溜溜：就你而言，你需要让别人读到你的作品。你的作品不是你想谁看谁就看的，让所有的人都读到你的文章。你就要出版自己的书，发表自己的短篇小说和诗歌，给出版社供稿。如果你已经开始写博客了，恭喜你，这是一个好的开始。若现在还没有人浏览过，你就需要把它放到流量更大的博客服务网站上去，让读者给你留言，给你提出建议。所有的人都会看你写东西，也许刚开始时会是件伤脑筋的事情，但这是每一位作家成长的必由之路，马上发表你的文字吧。

14.采用对话式的文体： 很多人的写作都很正式，但是我发现像我们说话一样写作会使文章更流畅(没有叹生词)。这样一来，读者看起来会更舒服。刚开始这么写并不容易，你需要坚持这么做。也许，会带来另一个问题，为了读起来更口语化，你需要打破一些语法规则(就像我的前一句那样)。因为如果生搬硬套语法，会让你的文章看起来很不自然。若没有其他原因，就不要破坏语法规则。你需要知道你在做什么和为什么这样做。

15.好开头和结尾： 开头和结尾是文章的重点。特别是开头。如果你不能在故事的开始就吸引读者，那他们就很难有耐心把整篇文章读完。所以投入更多的时间去考虑怎么写好开头，读者一旦对你开头感兴趣，他们会想知道得更多…写好开头后，再弄一个精彩的结尾，这会让读者更加期待你的下一篇佳作。