中招英语写作技巧最新（精选20篇）

敢于突破创新，是作文的一种创造性思维，这涉及到学生平时对生活的观察、思索和体验。只要有一颗真诚的心与经历过的人与事发生了共鸣与碰撞，才能爆发出智慧的火花。文章的“变脸”就在于能用“求异”思维方法，挖掘题目的材料和内涵，展开丰富的联想，寻找到最佳的切入点，提炼出更新更亮并最有价值的感悟、情感点和趣味点，那么佳作就会闪亮登场了。

如《狼之美》一文就打破了常规的思维方式，对狼的另一面作了深刻的剖析，你看，狼并非是人们常说的凶残动物，而有其“团结、诚实，我行我素”之美，进而再与人类作对比，更具有思考的深刻性，给人以启迪。作者不仅关注动物世界与人类社会的关系，而且从求异思维的角度运用一分为二的辩证观点对事物作出严谨的分析，这是值得大家仿效的。

例文：狼之美

狼，向来被人们看作是凶残的动物。在人们眼中，贪婪、嗜血、狡猾向来是它们的代号。古有蒲松龄的《狼》，描写的便是如此，然而，狼的美，它那颗孤独而又不羁的心，却从未被人熟悉。

团结。狼，如若要猎食大型动物的话，通常为“群起而攻之”。没有一匹狼会为了独食而另寻它道。只有在它们身边无所依傍的情况下，才会单独行动。在整个猎食的过程中，它们相互团结，一致抗敌。或许在人类的眼中，这正是它们凶残、贪婪的验证。但是，这也只不过是为了生存而迫不得已做的。而人类，身为高智商的动物，却不如狼。在外敌入侵时，总有一批人“纷纷作鸟兽散了”，有的甚至会卖国求荣，当起了汉奸。在这点上，狼也许是要比我们略胜一筹。

诚实。在现实社会里，人与人之间的尔虞我诈、勾心斗角是免不了的。人们如若阴险地战胜了对方，往往会加一些冠冕堂皇的理由。狼，即使猎食了其它动物，也不会为自己找借口。它们很清楚自己在干什么———为了生存。自然界的法律更是如此，它们做得光明磊落，无可厚非。相反，人类自己本是奸诈狡猾，却还把罪名加在狼头上，这是不是有点“血口喷狼”?

我行我素。狼，天生就是放荡不羁的性格，它们不会为了迎合他人而改变自己。即使人类把它们的“档案”存放在“凶残”这个文件夹里，它们依然始终如一。人类恐怕便不是如此了吧。许多人为了迎合上级或领导的口味，不惜阿谀奉承、溜须拍马，还美其名曰“巧舌如簧”。这些人真可谓是“恬不知耻”。

狼，它们也拥有美，它们有着自己独特的美。它不在外表，而在内涵。人类如果认为自己是万物之首的话，那么请学习一下狼的美吧。

一、作文成绩看字迹，得分要素是第一

这一点，所有的同学们一定要掌握明白了。任何形式的作文考试，阅卷老师打分时，第一眼，看的是字迹。因此，写作文必须要把字写好。记住，考作文考的是内容，而不是书法，切忌字迹潦草。

二、考试作文五六段，干净整洁看卷面

考试作文中，要注意及时分段，三四个段落显得少了，八九个段落，显得琐碎了些。除非有特殊情况，段落以五六个段落为好。此外，卷面一定要整洁，不要涂改得乱七八糟。我的看法是，考试作文每段最好别超过5行，顶多是5行半。切忌一段都八九行，写成“大肚子作文”。一旦给阅卷老师视觉上的疲劳，影响他的心理，分数就受影响。如果有必要，死拉硬拽也要注意分段。

三、开头结尾要简练，最好首尾两行半

除了切忌大肚子作文外，“大头作文”也要不得。建议考生在写作文的时候，开头结尾占两行半的卷面。顶多也不能超过三行半。想想看，一个开头就占太多的空间，阅卷老师的视觉又会有瞬间的疲劳，也会影响阅卷老师的情绪。

四、动笔之前要拟题，漂亮标题如美女

考试作文中，一般都是由考生自己来拟定题目，题目不宜太长和太短。怎么拟题呢?对于成绩一般的考生，应该采取特别措施了。拟题的办法有2个，一是你去百度上搜索一下作文拟题目，可以找到作文老师讲述的类似技巧。二是考生家长或考生，赶紧去翻阅最近一年的读者和青年文摘的合订本，根据题材，选择几十个比较精彩的标题，背下来，考试的时候可能比葫芦画瓢地就能采用到。

五、作文首尾要打眼，丰富多彩出靓点

考试作文的开头方法很多：六要素开头法、题记开头法、悬念开头法、引名句开头法、排比句开头法、拟人式开头法、设问式开头法、对偶式开头法、博喻加对仗开头法，合用修辞开头法、巧述典故开头法，解题式开头法、名人问答开头法、诗文引用开头法。希望考生们准备好一些关于道德、学习、礼仪、爱国、美德等方面的典故、名人名言，到时候就用得上。至少，你看到作文的时候，脑子里会闪现出上述前七八个开头方法。

结尾也很重要。一般来说，结尾是总结全文。如果是记叙文，要注意抒情。如果是议论文，则要注意归纳。无论如何，最好要扣准标题。怎么扣呢?如果你实在拿不准，就在结尾段的第一句，把题目说一下，然后归纳全文观点就是了。

六、动笔之前不要慌，想了题目列提纲

上面说了好几种技巧，其实在具体操作的时候，列提纲很关键。譬如，写记叙文要设计好开头结尾，同时要把你叙述的事情分成几个层次，一个层次是一段，中间如果能设置好一个过渡句或过渡段更好。列提纲的时候，一定要把开头结尾写详细写，中间各段，穿插哪些精彩的话语或名言俗语、诗词典故，要写准。一个合格的学生，列提纲，大约5分钟到8分钟。时间要掌握好，如果时间紧张，提纲就要简练些。

七、想好主题和文体，非驴非马不可取

写作文，要么是记叙文，要么是议论文。一般来说，多是“总—分—总”结构。记叙文的结尾要注意抒情和总结哲理，议论文最好是“1—3—1”或者“1—4—1”结构，中间的3或4，是分层解题。当然也可以灵活采用夹叙夹议的手法。但是注意，千万别议论文说了那么多事例却不归纳主题，千万记叙文忘记说事却议论过多。因此，写考试作文，事先要想好了，我写的是什么文体，就按相应文体的写法来写。

八、适当克隆和“抄袭”，考前备料攒信息

考试前，建议考生翻阅大量的范文，积累一些考试作文的结构。如果写记叙文，最好翻阅《读者》和《青年文摘》，其中的一些散文，结构是很好的，可以把写作的梗概和套路归纳出来。到考试的时候，你采用别人的“筐”，把自己的东西向里面装就可以了。关于感情、爱国、人生之类的优美语言，可以分别背个三五句，到时候直接抄上去就行了，这不算抄袭。关于国家大事，时事政治和要闻什么的，也要注意搜集一下。譬如，去年有奥运，今年是建国60周年，还有汶川地震的感人事迹等，都可以做考试作文的题材。

此外也有一些不太规范的方法，譬如别家的感人事迹，可以搬到自己家。这在考试的时候要灵活慎重运用。

九、篇幅争取要写满，多写一点是一点

一般来说，小升初作文要求都不低于500-600字。如果要求是600字左右，那就顶多写到700字。如果是不低于多少字，建议考生，争取合理安排卷面，把给的卷面写满到95%左右，留下最后一两行。作文老师一看你写得那么多，肯定觉得你的作文相对熟练，作文打分就趋高不趋低。

一、写外貌不用“有”

作文如何写外貌？孩子的作文里总会看到类似这样的名子：“XX可漂亮了，她有一头卷卷的黄头发，有一双乌黑的葡萄般的大眼睛，有一个高高的鼻子，还有一张樱桃小嘴。”如果你试着让他们去掉文中的“有”，把文字重新串联一遍，会发现作文顺了很多。写上段文字的同学经蒋老师指导后修改如下：“XX可漂亮啦。一头卷卷的黄头发自然地披在肩上。她的眼睛太吸引人了，乌黑乌黑葡萄一般。高高的鼻子，和樱桃小嘴配合起来，有点混血的味道，同学们可喜欢她啦。”是不是读起来舒服多了？

二、写说不单写“说”

让孩子比较以下三句话。

张三说：“……”；

张三无可奈何地说：“……”；

张三摊了摊手，一副无可奈何的样子：“……”

显然，让人物说话有多种方式，写语言可以不用出现“说”而是在语言前面加上动作和神态，通过一定的训练掌握这样的技巧让孩子的写作水平切实得到提升，让他们学会细节描写，不会仅干巴巴的地写“某某说”。

三、写想不出现“想”

遇到描写心理活动时，这样的句子已经被孩子们写滥：“我脑子里跳出两个小人，一个小人……另一个小人……”不用这个句子又该怎么写？最常用的就是“我心想”。如某学生写：“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。我心想：天哪！这该怎么办呢？”

按照蒋老师“写想不用想”的技巧，去掉：“我心想”三个字如何？“数学老师出了一道难题要带回家写的。天哪！这该怎么办呢？”是不是更简洁精练？别忘了提醒孩子要给心理描写加上适当感叹词。

四、不用成语

作文为什么写不长？都是成语惹的祸！蒋老师此言一出震惊四座。不是说多用成语才显得有文采吗？其实不然，在“就是不用成语”写作技巧中，蒋老师指出：当作文中只会按照套路使用成语时，文章细节就没了，还不如让孩子老老实实把自己看到的感受都写出来。什么天高云淡、风和日丽、桃红柳绿、炯炯有神、心旷神怡……这些被用滥的成语还是少出现为妙。

比如，写春天别用“风和日丽”，而是这样写：“风儿拂过林梢，原本平静的湖面漾起了圈圈涟漪，湖边的柳树轻摇着身姿，我也忍不住张开双臂，任风抚过我的每一寸肌肤，暖暖的，痒痒的。”想办法用具体的句子替换掉别人用滥的成语，解决孩子作文写不长写不细的难题。

五、遇到“很”和“非常”想一想

对于文章写不长的孩子，可以训练的另一个技巧是：遇到“很”和“非常”想一想。看过无数学生习作，蒋老师发现出现频率最高的字眼包括“很，非常”。请老师和家长提醒孩子，遇到要写这几个字时不要轻易下笔，停下来想一想，是不是非要出现这个字眼？

比如写热，别出现“很热”两个字，学会用其他的描写来体现热：骄阳似火，没有一丝风，树叶低垂毫无生气……

六、环境里面有“真”“情”

到了五六年级孩子都要学习环境描写。如有的孩子会写：“早上天气还挺好的，放学回家时，却哗哗下起雨来。雨珠在下，泪珠在滴，老天也好像在为我哭泣。”

孩子能用环境衬托自己的心情首先要表扬。但是很多孩子只要一写环境，肯定就是小花微笑，小草点头、小鸟歌唱、小雨哭泣，成了套路，难道世界上只有小草、小鸟、小花吗？为什么不能写身边更真实的东西呢？云、雾、桌子，哪怕是电线杆都可以写，这个技巧是提醒孩子不仅要让人活在环境里，还要让人活在真实的环境里。

七、要动连着动

文章要一波三折才好看，但现在的孩子生活都很平淡，你不能强求他们写出一波三折的内容，那就让他们学会一波三折地使用动词，就这是要动连着动——学会连续使用动词。

某学生写一场乒乓球球赛：“他发了一个旋转球，让人看得眼花缭乱。”（一句话把文章就给写完了）

学会动词技巧后将修改成：“只见他高高地将球抛起，眼睛死死盯着，球接触球板的一瞬间，他手腕轻轻一抖，脚一跺，球高速旋转着，向这边飞来，让人看得眼花缭乱。”一个动词转瞬变成六七个，文字即刻灵动丰富起来。

八、一秒钟的事写三百字

还是针对作文写不长的一种技巧训练：用三百字来描写1秒钟内发生的事。如关于破校运会跳高纪录瞬间的描写原本只有几十字：只见某某纵身一跳，一下子飞过横杆，新的校运会纪录诞生了！

怎么变成三百字？可以有条理地加上动作解剖：如何助跑、起跳、翻越、落地；加上联想：往届校运会有人挑战失败，平时如何一次次练习等等；还可以加上细节来充实，起跳前如何与同学们进行眼神交流，成功后同学如何向他祝贺……家长可以找一些1秒钟的素材让孩子进行写作练习，学会了这个技巧还怕考试写不出四五百字吗？

九、一段话里至少出现6个标点

很多孩子不会用标点，习作中常只有逗号句号逗号句号，甚至逗号都没有，把老师读到断气为止。针对这个现象，可以让孩子进行“一段话至少出现6种标点”的技巧训练。比如，。？！……：“”这些标点你的作文中都有吗？没有的话请尝试用起来。

经过几次训练后，你会发现孩子的惊人变化：意味深长的句子会写了、人物语言会加进去了，心理活动结合进去了，还会用反问句了，这些句子加进去后，文章当然生动起来。一位作家就曾用这种方法对自己作文写不好的孩子进行训练，收效明显，进步很快。

十、字数三四五

这个技巧说白了就是学习写短句。学了一段时间写作的孩子容易在作文中写长句，而长句写不好就变成病句。事实上很多作家也是以写短句见长的，像沈从文、汪曾祺。家长要提醒孩子注意控制每句话的字数，建议把十几个字几十个字的长句改成只有三四五个字的短句，孩子们会发现这样的作文有语感会舒服很多。如某学生的原文：“高高的绿绿的草散发着诱人的清香。一根一根都看得那么清楚，很挺拔的样子。”

经指导后改成：“草绿了，高了，散发着清香。一根一根，看得清清楚楚，很挺拔的样子。”是不是很有节奏感？

[关于初中语文作文写作技巧分享

一.概念

记叙文也称叙述文，是一种以记叙/叙述的手法来表述人物、事件的文体。常见的属于记叙文文体的作品有：故事、游记、通讯、新闻报道、历史、 人物传记、日记和回忆录等。记叙文大致可以分为两大类：以记人为主的记叙文和以叙事为主的记叙文。前者主要是对人物的经历、活动或者性格特征进行叙述;后者则是对某一事件的发生、发展过程和结果进行叙述。前者重在描述人物的活动，而后者则重在表述事件的发生发展过程。

二.六大要素

记叙文的写作要注意交待清楚六大要素，即时间(time)、地点(place)、 人物( character)、事件的原因(cause)、经过(process)和结果( effect)。

由于记叙文中所涉及的要素比其他文体相对要多、要复杂，所以整篇文章的结构安排就显得尤其重要，安排不合理就会使读者产生混乱的感觉。

记叙文的展开一般都是以时间为主线来组织所要叙述的内容，使读者对文章中的人物或事件有一个比较清晰的了解。记叙文的结构安排通常有三种形式:正叙、倒叙和插叙。正叙是英语叙述文中最常用的一种结构，即以人物出现、活动或事件开始发生的时间点作为记叙的起点，然后按照人物活动的展开、事件发生发展的自然顺序进行叙述。倒叙则是在文章的开头就交待人物活动或事件发展的结果。插叙这一结构在我们的英文写作中很少用到。

三.时态

记叙文讲述的大多是过去已经发生的活动或事件，因此用过去时态(一般过去时、过去进行时、过去将来时、过去完成时)的作品比较多。但有时为了使文章显得更加真实、亲切和生动，也可以使用现在时态(一般现在时、 现在进行时、现在将来时、现在完成时)。

四.人称

记叙某个人物的经历、活动或某件事情的经过离不开叙述的主体，即 “人称”。记叙文中的人称大多采用第一人称或第三人称的形式。第一人称的叙述主观色彩较浓，可以增强文章的真实感，有利于表述细腻的情感和细节的过程;第三人称的叙述可以超越时空的限制，更加真实、客观地表述某一人物活动或事件的全过程。

无论采用第一人称，还是采用第二人称，都要保持全文叙述主体的人称的一致性。注意：句式尽量要多变，不要通篇文章的句子都以人称代词开头，否则文章会显得单调沉闷。例如: I loved the book first because of its beautiful heroine. Then I found it a romantic love story which greatly moved me. I now find that it is better taken as the growth story of a naive girl into a strong-willed woman. I realize that it is the essence of the book that attracts such big number of faithful readers.

这一段描述在用词、内容、逻辑上都不错，但过多地使用了以“I”开头的句子，使文章略显单调乏昧，给读者的印象大打折扣。

五.措辞与表达

在全国大学英语四级考试的各种作文体裁中，记叙文需要应试者具有更全面的语言技能与篇章组织能力。四级考试中常见的议论文和说明文分别要求语言的准确性和论证的合理性、可信性;而记叙文的语言则以生动、真实、 贴切为准则。同一个记叙文题目，不同的人会描述不同的人物经历或事件，又很少有固定的表达或句式可供参考，这时作者的综合语言水平就会表现出来，对能否取得高分起到了相当重要的作用。 这就要求考生平时要多注意语言的磨练和积累。

六.记叙文写作技巧

1. 仔细审题，明确主题，选准素材，罗列提纲。

2. 写好第一段

最好能采用一个复句并且用上几个四级水平的单词或词组。这样的文章开篇方式会使读者或阅卷人确信接下来的文章也一样精彩。

我们来看这样一段文章的开头:

The results of the college entrance examination came. I tore open the envelope. As soon as I saw the score，tears streamed down my face. I fell into my bed and did not get up the whole day. All was over. What is the meaning to live on earth? For the first time， I thought of death， of being a vagrant and of being single all my life. I was only seventeen. Wasn’t it cruel to me? My father was hurt and he could not stand it that his son was a disgrace. He was angry beyond words. My mother kept silent，and often I saw her in tears. Horror filled the house.

怎么样，你自己是否也被一种失落与绝望的气氛所笼罩，并且期待着看到作者接下来会做些什么呢?

3. 结构要清晰

下笔之前一定要对整篇文章的结构有一个完整的构想，作文的框架、主题和脉络是最重要的采分点。要清楚每一段要陈述哪些内容，这样不仅可以增强文章的逻辑性和可接受性，还可以使整篇作文的行文水到渠成，不会有凑字数的烦恼。

4. 尽量多使用表示转折、顺接、因果和时间的连接词

如first、second、moreover、for one thing…for another、on the one hand…on the other hand等。这样既可以显示语言功底，又增强了记叙内容的连贯性和生动性。

5. 文章不要写得太长

有的考生遇到触动自己内心情感的记叙文题目时就“一发不可收拾”，但由于时间有限，结果草草收尾，甚至没有结尾。四级作文毕竟是应试作文， 只要充分发挥出自己的英语语言水平，表述出所规定的内容就可以了。

6. 要多用四级词汇，要使句式多样化

没有语言错误并不是高分作文的保障(基本没有语言错误只是8分的基本要求) ;作文想达到11分以上，四级词汇和句型必须达到一定的比例。如，表示“重视”的词汇有stress，emphasize等，但选用短语attach importance to更能吸引阅卷人的注意;disagree和frown on sth. 都表示反对或不赞成，前者就平淡，后者表达意思很生动，更能引起阅卷老师的注意。

简单句和复合句合理搭配，长短句交替使用，会增强文章的节奏感，使描写更生动，给阅卷老师留下深刻印象。如：

(1) 名词化手段：用名词或名词词组替换一个句子或句子的主要部分，然后使这个名词或名词短语成为另外一个句子的组成部分，以达到合并句子的目的。如：

We were very much surprised. Mary refused the invitation.

We were very much surprised at/by Mary’s refusal of the invitation.

(2) 定语化手段：根据语义关系，可以把其中一句转换成形容词或形容词性成分、分词短语、定语从句等，如：

The winnerwas in no mood for speeches. The winner was hot and tired.

Thewinner，hot and tired，was in no mood for speeches.(转换成形容词短语) 7. 字迹清楚，卷面整洁。尽量不涂抹。 8. 最后的2—3分钟，进行修改检查。

检查的内容不是“大处着眼”，而是“小处着手”;不是考虑作文的框架结构，而是留心细枝末节。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

记叙文一直都是常考作文题型，那么记叙文会写吗？下面是小编为大家整理的记叙文写作小技巧，希望能帮到您！

技巧1、对于故事中的人物，一定要注重细节刻画，特别是细微的动作刻画。

《米粒?谷粒?血汗》

无助的他用筷子无助地在碗里捣腾着，突然那雪白的米饭进出了一点黄色，那是一粒谷，和父亲那古铜的脸有着一样的颜色。他的心颤抖起来，小时候给父亲送饭的一幕又浮现在眼前。

那是一个炎夏的夏的正午，父亲坐在田垄上吃着他送的饭，也是吃到浅底的时候，几粒黄色的谷露了出来。“扔掉吧，阿爸。”“胡扯!”父亲像豹子一样吼了一声，他一辈子也没见父亲如此愤怒过，接下来的情形更让他终生难忘：父亲将筷子插在田垅上，用那满是泥巴的手将谷粒一粒一粒地拈起来放进嘴里，锁着眉头，然后是艰难的一咽……“孩子，那是咱农家的血汗呀!”父亲对满腹委屈的他说。

技巧2、灵活运用人物细节描写和环境细节描写的各种方法。

例一：他拿着书本走进教室。(叙述)

一位慈眉善目的银发老者左手拿着书，右手拄着拐杖，步履蹒跚地走进教室。

神态描写 肖像描写 动作描写

叙述：概括 客观，感情色彩不强

描写：具体 感情色彩非常鲜明

例二、试卷发下来了，班里的同学情态各异。(叙述)

试卷发下来了，整个班级顿时像个炸开的锅。有的人洋洋自得，翘起二郎腿，腿不停地上下摆动，有一种飘飘然的感觉;有的人把头埋在桌子上，不用问就知：一定没考好;有的则拿着得分不高不低的卷子叽叽喳喳地议论着;有的则拿起笔开始订正自己的试卷;我的同桌——他一手拍着试卷，一手拍着大腿，不住地嚷嚷着：“天啊!我不想活了!怎么连这么简单的题都做错了，我干脆拿块豆腐撞死好了……”

点面结合 动作描写 语言描写

例三、他拿着书来到阅览室，很努力地挤到座位上。(叙述)

刚走到阅览室的门口，一股热气就迎面扑来。踏进阅览室一瞧，嗬，人真多啊!他们坐的坐，站的站，仿佛老僧入定般沉浸在书本的世界里;还有挤来挤去找位子的，觅书报的……然而周围却静得出奇，只有日光灯发出‘兹——’的声响和轻微翻书的声音。他不禁屏息静气，抱紧书本，踮起脚跟，小心翼翼地插进去，东扭西挪地避开人群，好不容易才发现了一个空位。他就立刻闪过去坐下。

动静结合 渲染 白描 动作描写(细微的细节刻画)

小结方法

人物细节描写：神态描写、动作描写、心理描写、语言描写、外貌描写

环境细节描写：白描 渲染 点面结合 动静结合

一、明确作文要求，提高写作能力

一篇好的作文，要有一个主题思想，整篇作文应该是紧扣文章主题，遵循特定的文体格式，选用恰当的语言合理组织文章结构，内容统一、连贯，语法、拼写、标点 正确，用词恰当。很多同学在准备英语写作时找不到方向，一味的想在考研英语写作上面抓分，却又不知道怎么样提高。杨老师在此特别提醒考生首先要学会抓住考研英语写作要领，尤其注意文章逻辑关系在阅读中的运用。逻辑关系散布在文章的句子内部、句句之间、以及段落之间。最基本的逻辑关系有以下几种：

1、因果关系：as a result ，therefore，hence，consequently，because,for, due to, hence, consequently等等。

2、并列、递进关系：and, or, then，in addition，besides，in other words，moreover等等

3、转折关系：however，but, yet, in fact等等。

这些其实是已经很熟悉的逻辑提示词在文章中起的效果，并非仅仅是衔接文章的句子，从阅读的角度来看，其实同时在给我们某种提示，告诉我们哪些句子是有效信息，相对重要的信息，哪些信息是相对不重要的信息，因为我们在英语写作的时候，有一条清晰的思路，你不是为了完整翻译文章而进行阅读，而是为了获取主旨来写作。

二、摆脱无话可说 练习“三段式”思维

在英语作文写作时，无话可说的确让人比较头疼，无话可说是一个极端，有的考生题目看得懂，提纲也一目了然，就是不知道该说什么，在考场上头脑一片空白，想到的也只是空泛的东西，在考试过程当中，这会在很大程度上影响大家的做题效果和做题速度。杨老师表示，当头脑出现空白时，应该从具体的、细小的、琐碎的、微不足道的事物所引发的思考变成观点，再进行论述。例如，领导讲话总是第一部分、、第二部分、第三部分…这样条理比较清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1）first, second, third, last（不推荐，原因：俗）

2）firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally（不推荐，原因：俗）

3）the first, the second, the third, the last（不推荐，原因：俗）

4）in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly（不推荐，原因：俗）

5）to begin with, then, furthermore, finally（强烈推荐）

6）to start with, next, in addition, finally（强烈推荐）

7）first and foremost, besides, last but not least（强烈推荐）

8）most important of all, moreover, finally

9）on the one hand, on the other hand（适用于两点的情况）

10）for one thing, for another thing（适用于两点的情况）

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚！

三、用词准确保证语言连贯

考研英语写作中，同样是一篇作文，在没有语法、词汇等基础性错误的前提下，一个考生的句式平平，而另外一个考生的句式灵活多变，非常漂亮，毫无疑问，后者肯定比前者的分数高。但写英语作文时最忌讳的是用一些模棱两可的词，表达不够准确，而且考试时要特别注意语法、词语、语气、标点符号等，避免单词拼写错误、语法错误，不要为了追求词语的华丽而堆积一些自己也没把握的单词，不要刻意追求长句而写一些自己不知对错的有多个从句组成的长句。建议考生考试时，最好选择自己最有把握的词汇、短语和句式。

很多考生习惯背诵模版，在写作文是喜欢套用背诵模版，但由于仓促，紧张等原因，很容易犯一些简单的错误，如语句不通。所以提醒考生选材时切忌胡子眉毛一把抓，词语堆积，不伦不类。前后及段落之间在逻辑关系上要紧密衔接，不能把没有任何逻辑关系的词放在一起，可以用恰当的关联词把思想连贯的表达出来。总之，无论想要套用那个模版，前提都要保证语言通顺，文章思想连贯。此外，要有自己的style，一来通过背诵或研究范文，把握考研英语作文的整体结构特点，以及写作格式，二来要在研究范文的基础上寻找自己的闪光点，比如闪光词汇。如果大家仔细研究真题，就会发现，几乎所有的高分作文都有一个共同点，那就是都具有几个闪光词汇，这个词汇可能并不是什么高级词汇，但是你能把它的延伸意，或者说你能把我它的一词多义，并且应用到你的文章中。

四、长短句巧搭配 精悍短语当亮点

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。此外短小精辟的句子，也可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although oneaction is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy theintellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

杨老师强烈建议：在文章第一段（开头）用一长一短，且先长后短；在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉！文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

1. According to a recent survey， four million people die eachyear from diseases linked to smoking.

依照最近的一项调查，每年有4，000，000人死于与吸烟有关的疾病。

2. The latest surveys show that quite a few children haveunpleasant associations with homework.

最近的调查显示相当多的孩子对家庭作业没什么好感。

3. No invention has received more praise and abuse than Internet.

没有一项发明像互联网一样同时受到如此多的赞扬和批评。

4. People seem to fail to take into account the fact that education does not end with graduation.

人们似乎忽视了教育不应该随着毕业而结束这一事实。

5. An increasing number of people are beginning to realize that education is not complete withgraduation.

越来越多的人开始意识到教育不能随着毕业而结束。

6. When it comes to education， the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.

说到教育，大部分人认为其是一个终生的学习。

7. Many experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to a persons physical fitness.

许多专家指出体育锻炼直接有助于身体健康。

8. Proper measures must be taken to limit the number of foreign tourists and the great effortsshould be made to protect local environment and history from the harmful effects of internationaltourism.

应该采取适当的措施限制外国旅游者的数量，努力保护当地环境和历史不受国际旅游业的不利影响。

9. An increasing number of experts believe that migrants will exert positive effects on constructionof city. However， this opinion is now being questioned by more and more city residents， whocomplain that the migrants have brought many serious problems like crime and prostitution.

越来越多的专家相信移民对城市的建设起到积极作用。然而，越来越多的城市居民却怀疑这种说法，他们抱怨民工给城市带来了许多严 重的问题，像犯罪和卖淫。

10. Many city residents complain that it is so few buses in their city that they have to spend muchmore time waiting for a bus， which is usually crowded with a large number of passengers.

许多市民抱怨城市的公交车太少，以至于他们要花很长时间等一辆公交车，而车上可能已满载乘客。

俗话说写文章要“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”，就是要求开头精彩，内容充实，结尾有力。好的开头是成功的一半，所以小编给大家带来了高考语文满分作文开篇五大技巧，希望大家能抓住最后的机会。

1 修辞开篇，展示文采

修辞是语言运用中不可缺少的部分。生动而又贴切的修辞手法的运用常能使语言增添许多风采。在高考作文，你若能熟练运用修辞手法，定能使文章增色添辉。下面举例中，运用比喻、排比，使语言形象生动、气势畅达、音韵和谐。

例：千载风雨兴衰，你，静静地贮立于万千苍生之上，仰天长望，唯有无字碑留下了你的浩叹。抚摸着那凹凹凸凸的碑身， 沧桑而感慨，你，只是略略扬起那时柔时刚的嘴角。此时，风，依旧凛冽；苍穹，依旧浩渺，你无语，碑无字，却完整地记下了你的不凡，青史依旧为你长流，在那 看似空白的无字碑上，却无限延伸着你——那个唐朝女皇的博大与智慧。（福建高考满分作文《点点空白 悠悠情思》）

2 悬念导入，吸引读者

高考作文在开始写之前，不妨用3-6分钟精心构思，用悬念导入，这样容易抓住人们阅读时的好奇心理，吸引人们阅读，从而达到良好效果。

例：很小很小的时候，总是喜爱看妈妈穿白色的裙子，她那么美，那么快乐，被妈妈牵着小手好幸福好幸福！那时候，妈妈就是我心中的天使。然而妈妈却爱亲昵地叫着我：“安琪，你是天使！

我不是天使，要不被接进天堂的怎会是妈妈，而不是我呢？（广东高考满分作文《我是天使》）。

3 故事先行，引人入胜

高考作文故事先行，能引人入胜。举例中的“蚌育珍珠”是许多人都知道的故事，它具体形象，引人入胜，包含着一个经历艰辛困苦获得成功的道理。

作者叙写的这个故事很好地契合“雨燕减肥”这一话题的深刻寓意。标题中的“它”，正是困难、挫折、艰难险阻等的代称，突破它们，人生将变得壮美无比。作者以这故事先行，既能引人入胜，又切合话题。

例：夏日里的炎热炙烤着大地，不知不觉中，海边多起了游泳的人。向远处望去，几个小孩像在搜寻着 什么，带着好奇我走了过去，才知他们是在寻找珍珠……一颗小小的沙砾被蚌无意识地吞噬在嘴里，蚌觉得好痛，似乎有一把尖刀刺向它的喉咙。但一切都无可奈何，只能日日夜夜地把它磨小、磨亮才能将它吐出。终于有一天，蚌被海水冲上了海滩，一个小男孩发现了蚌嘴里的沙砾，把它取了出来，但它不再是粗糙的沙砾， 而是一颗灿烂夺目的珍珠，蚌感觉轻松了许多，重新回到了海洋中。蚌育珍珠从此为人们所知，于是它的故事被人们所传颂，生命从此有了夺目的光彩，每一次去海边，我都带着崇高的敬意注视着蚌的艰辛。（江西高考满分作文《穿过它，生命从此壮美》）

4 引用开头，突出主题

引用法是一种很常用的文章开头法，巧妙地借用诗歌、名言、典故、俗谚语开篇，能收到很好的艺术效果。当然，引用要突出主题，要准确、得体，切忌张冠李戴、弄巧成拙。举例以引用诗词名句开篇，从多方面多角度论述了“意气”，增强了论证效果，突出了主题。

例：“千磨万击还坚劲，任尔东西南北风”，是青翠的竹在向你昭示着它的意气，昭示着一种贯穿生命的不屈与坚韧；

“不爱沙滩擢贝子，扬帆击楫戏中流”，是浪顶峰尖的弄潮儿在向你昭示着他的意气，昭示着一种蓬勃于血脉中的勇敢和无惧；

“仰天大笑出门去，我辈岂是蓬蒿人”，是骄傲的行者在向你昭示着他的意气，昭示着一种托起生命、托起希望的坚定的信心。

意气，生命的支撑，成功的基石。（湖南高考满分作文《谈意气》）

5 设问开头，引人深思

高考作文开头围绕主题设问，有问有答，能引人深思，突出主题。看看下面的例题开头围绕“纵然面对的会是苦涩，但苦涩之后便会是甘甜”这一主题，通过一连串的“问”和“答”，开启了思绪，突出了主题。

高考作文开头围绕主题设问，有问有答，能引人深思，突出主题。看看下面的例题开头围绕“纵然面对的会是苦涩，但苦涩之后便会是甘甜”这一主题，通过一连串的“问”和“答”，开启了思绪，突出了主题。

例：倘若你是一粒种子，告诉我，你会怎样？是等待春天的召唤，还是迫于与寒冬挣扎？倘若你是一掬清泉，告诉我，你会 怎样？是任凭风儿的吹荡，还是勇于激起浪花？倘若你是沧海桑田中的一颗沙砾，告诉我，你会怎样？是受命于雨打风吹化成一缕尘烟，还是敢于摩擦出晶莹的珍 珠？……大凡成功之士都会选择后者，纵然面对的会是苦涩，但苦涩之后便会是甘甜。（江西高考满分作文《磨炼出与成功的默契》）

总之，采用怎样的文章开头，应根据文章的内容和风格来定。总原则是用上好的开篇，能使文章主旨更鲜明，结构更严谨，内容更丰富，材料更新颖，语言更生动。

aboutasto

getacquire(knowledge/skills)

offerafford(jobopportunities)

expectanticipatechanges/difficulities)

solvetackle/grapplewith

raiseelevate/heighten

mostimportantoverriding/override

combinesynthesize

supportuphold(ournationalvalues)

deepen

weak

usetoomuch

becauseof

satisfy

learn

finally

right

know

miss

dotogether

boring

balance

difference

prettybutlessuseful

fresh

happenagain

good

difficult

perfect

urgent

sad

many/toomuch

fast-growing

maketrue

should

control

broadenone’shorizon

spendAonB

AisimportanttoB

finishsthby

decidetodo

sthisimportant

finditdifficulttodofuelvfuelconflictssap/one’sconfidencestretchnaturalresourcestothelimitattributeto/ascribetomeet/begearedtoward+sthdrawonothers’experienceendupdoing/endwithmakesensenaildownpassuppitchinsitthroughequilibriumecologicalequilibriumdistinctionnicetiesnoveltyrecurringpaindesirableundesirable:notgoodchallengingflawlesspressingbittermounting/awealthofburgeoningpopulationfulfillbesupposetoholdfasttoone’sdreamexpandone’soutlookdedicateAtoBAbeanessentialingredientof/bepartandparcelof/bethecornerstoneofBexploreeveryavenuetowardmakeitapointtodobeamilepostinbehard-pressedtodo/haveahardtimedoingsth

conflictbeatoddswith

few/littleverylittle,ifany

opposefrownon

befullofbeinundated/saturatedwith

todoharmtobelikelytofallpreyto/bevulnerableto

concerncausegraveconcern/concernshavearisenabout

meanspelldisaster/troublefor

makesthsthAhasrenderBsth

tootosthhasreachedsuchproportionthat/…tothepointwhere…mostimportantmorethananything,/andaboveall

growtheproliferationoffast-food/cybergames

seesthobjectivelyputsthinperspective

thinksthmostimportantit’shardtooverstatethesignificanceofneedsthnecessitate/entail

bedevotedtobebenton/upon

showmirror/embody

differentthewholespectrumof

turningpointbeawatershed

accordingtointheeyesof

affecthinder

ageera

aimtargetv

andalongwith/aswellas

andsoonthelike

appearmushroom/springup/sproutup

applyputintopractice

askconsult

aspectsphere

attachenclose

attracttempt/appealto

audienceviewer

basisfoundation

beabletobecapableto

beconvenientatone’sconvenience

begoodatbeskilledat

behelpfulbeofhelp

beimportantbeofimportance

benearbearoundthecorner

beobviousitgoeswithoutsayingthat…/itisarguablethatberisingskyrocket/rocket/soar

besuretobeboundto

besurprisedatbeamazedat

beuselessbeofnouse

bearbeloadedwith

becauseofdueto

becomefashionablecomeintoafashion

becomehappycheerup

beforeoriginal

buildfound/putup/shape

buyafford

byoneselfallalone

carefulattentive

causeattributeto/leadto

changemodify/shift/fluctuation

changewithvarywith

cheatingdeception

choosefrommakeachoicebetween

clearevident/self-evident

comefromstemfrom/springfrom

comeoutcomeforth

complainplaceacomplaintagainst

considerconvince/figureout/givethoughtto

consider…..importantattachimportanceto/laymuchemphasisuponcontinuegoahead

controlinthegripsof

cooperatejoinhandswith

decidedetermine

deepprofound/far-reaching

dependonhingeupon/counton

dependononeselfliveonone’sown

developcultivate/buildup

difficultybarrier

diligentindustrious

dogoinfor/carryout

dogooddofavor/helpv

dropdecline/ontheebb

eatlessgoonadiet

emphasisputahighvalueon/treasurev/valuev/cherishv

enablefacilitate

encouragespursbonto/motivate

endangerjeopardize

enforcestrengthen

engagemajorin

enjoybecrazyabout

enlargebroaden

enoughadequate

evaluatespeakhighlyof

explainuavelthemysteryof/accountfor/beresponsiblefor

facebefacedwith/faceup

failfrustrate

failurefrustration

fameprestige

famousprominent

famouspeoplegalaxy

feelingpassion/sentiments

findlocate

findoutsortout

finishaccomplish

firelayoff

fixinginstallation

focusoncenteron

forexampleacaseinpoint

foreverpermanent

futureprospective

getacquire/regain

getridofeliminate

givegrant/issue

give/supplyprovide…with

giveattentiontogivepriorityto

globaluniversal

goonbringforward

goalheart’sdesire

goodbeneficial

goodstudentstopstudents

goodsnecessity

greatenormous/dramatic

greatprime/utmost

greetingsregards

growflourish

happinesswell-being

havepossess

havearelationshipwithbeontermswith

hopelookforwardto

hopetodosthbeeagertososth./longtodosthhopefulpromising

ignoreneglect

illnessdisease

importantessential/vita

improveenhance/boost/upgrade

improvementadvance

ingroupsintwosandthrees

includemakeup

increasesoar

influencemold

intendtargettodosth./bemeanttodointerestedcrazy

interestinglywithgreatinterestintroductionprospectus

investigationsurvey

joboccupation/employment

joinmaintain/holdonto

keepmaintain/holdonto

killoneselfcommitsuicide

knowgrasp/beawareof/knowaboutknowledgecommand

leavedepartfrom

likepreference

limitconfine

loadburden

lookaroundexamine

lookforruninto/huntfor

lookup…inreferto

lowerinferior

makenervousplacestrainon

makeprogressmakeleapsin/pressforwardmakesureguarantee

makesurethattoseeitthat…

manyberichin/countless

meetruninto/comeacross

messchaos

necessaryindispensable

needbeinneedof

nothesitatefeelfreetodosth

notknowbeignorantof

number

obvious

occupation

offer

only

outcome

overcome

pass

payattentionto

people

perform

period

第1段150字左右：写出中心论点，首选单句形式，且是判断句或肯定句。绝对不用复句(复句易走题，影响得分)，点出写作的由头，作文题中含有的提示性文字材料，一定要有所涉及。

第2段200字左右：段首讲述分论点一，如第一节的内容是几个分论点的简单组合，则“分论点一”适宜放在段尾。这样和分论点二、分论点三的位置区别开来，使行文有变化。“分论点一”论证不许举例，采用纯分析的说理论据展开。

第3段200字左右：段首讲述分论点二，采用举例论证，首选作文题提示中的例子来分析论证，同时也可辅助一个自己举的例子，自己举的例子要比前例文字少。如没有作文题提示中的例子，则自己举个典型的例子来分析论证，同样要求叙写例子的文字一定要比分析论证的文字少。否则对文体特征会产生重创，影响得分。

第4段200字左右：段首讲述分论点三。采用联系实际举例。这是写作本文的时代意义所在。联系的实际可以是学习、生活、社会任何一个方面，目的是或提高思想认识，或明确是非正邪，或提出解决的方法途径，或揭示某种疑难迷惑，总之要给人以启发。

第5段150字左右：要再现中心论点，扣住中心论点写出作用、意义、号召、展望等。易走题，影响得分)，点出写作的由头，作文题中含有的提示性文字材料，一定要有所涉及。

第2段200字左右：段首讲述分论点一，如第一节的内容是几个分论点的简单组合，则“分论点一”适宜放在段尾。这样和分论点二、分论点三的位置区别开来，使行文有变化。“分论点一”论证不许举例，采用纯分析的说理论据展开。

第3段200字左右：段首讲述分论点二，采用举例论证，首选作文题提示中的例子来分析论证，同时也可辅助一个自己举的例子，自己举的例子要比前例文字少。如没有作文题提示中的例子，则自己举个典型的例子来分析论证，同样要求叙写例子的文字一定要比分析论证的文字少。否则对文体特征会产生重创，影响得分。

第4段200字左右：段首讲述分论点三。采用联系实际举例。这是写作本文的时代意义所在。联系的实际可以是学习、生活、社会任何一个方面，目的是或提高思想认识，或明确是非正邪，或提出解决的方法途径，或揭示某种疑难迷惑，总之要给人以启发。

第5段150字左右：要再现中心论点，扣住中心论点写出作用、意义、号召、展望等。易走题，影响得分)，点出写作的由头，作文题中含有的提示性文字材料，一定要有所涉及。

第2段200字左右：段首讲述分论点一，如第一节的内容是几个分论点的简单组合，则“分论点一”适宜放在段尾。这样和分论点二、分论点三的位置区别开来，使行文有变化。“分论点一”论证不许举例，采用纯分析的说理论据展开。

第3段200字左右：段首讲述分论点二，采用举例论证，首选作文题提示中的例子来分析论证，同时也可辅助一个自己举的例子，自己举的例子要比前例文字少。如没有作文题提示中的例子，则自己举个典型的例子来分析论证，同样要求叙写例子的文字一定要比分析论证的文字少。否则对文体特征会产生重创，影响得分。

第4段200字左右：段首讲述分论点三。采用联系实际举例。这是写作本文的时代意义所在。联系的实际可以是学习、生活、社会任何一个方面，目的是或提高思想认识，或明确是非正邪，或提出解决的方法途径，或揭示某种疑难迷惑，总之要给人以启发。

第5段150字左右：要再现中心论点，扣住中心论点写出作用、意义、号召、展望等。

规范英语论文的格式,使之与国际学术惯例接轨,对从事英语教学,英语论文写作,促进国际学术交流都具有重要意义。下面是小编为你带来的关于英语论文的写作格式和规范，希望对你有帮助。

一、英语论文的标题

一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:Dr./Prof.C.Prager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为0.6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。

就学生而言,如果英语论文篇幅较短,亦可不做标题页(及提纲页),而将标题页的内容打在正文第一页的左上方。第一行为作者姓名,与打印纸顶端距离约为2.5cm,以下各行依次为教师学衔和姓、课程编号(或名称)及日期;各行左边上下对齐,并留出2.5cm左右的页边空白(下同)。接下来便是论文标题及正文(日期与标题之间及标题与正文第一行之间只需隔行打印,不必留出更多空白)。

二、英语论文提纲

英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为2.5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母;处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。

三、英语论文正文

有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约1.5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码;阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。

四、英语论文的文中引述

正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节;既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性。引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。目前美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。现针对文中引述的不同情况,将部分规范格式分述如下。

1.若引文不足三行,则可将引文有机地融合在论文中。如:

The divorce of Arnolds personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).

这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不必注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文出处的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点符号;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。

2.被引述的文字如果超过三行,则应将引文与论文文字分开,如下例所示:

Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”

is an admirable and characteristic

diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it

Whitman is unable to conceive the

extreme crises of society, one is certain

that no society would be tolerable whoses

citizens could not find refreshment in its

buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)

这里的格式有两点要加以注意。一是引文各行距英语论文的左边第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,末尾的句号应标在最后一个词后。

3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以解释,则要使用方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:

Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).

值得注意的是,本例中引文作者的姓已出现在引导句中,故圆括弧中只需注明引文出处的页码即可。

4.如果拟引用的文字中有与论文无关的词语需要删除,则需用省略号。如果省略号出现在引文中则用三个点,如出现在引文末,则用四个点,最后一点表示句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(一般说来,应避免在引文开头使用省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:

Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).

5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除注明作者姓和页码外,还需注明卷号。如:

Professor Chen Jias A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).

圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,说明引文出自第1卷序言(引言、序言、导言等多使用小写的罗马数字标明页码)。此外,书名A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格式是:书名,包括以成书形式出版的作品名(如《失乐园》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其他作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及前面出现的“Democratic Vistas”等。

6.如果英语论文中引用了同一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除注明引文作者及页码外,还要注明作品名。如:

Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).

Farrington points out that Aristotles father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle15).

这两个例子分别引用了Farrington的两部著作,故在各自的圆括弧中分别注出所引用的书名,以免混淆。两部作品名均为缩写形式(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以注明时均需使用缩写形式),其全名分别为Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。

7.评析诗歌常需引用原诗句,其引用格式如下例所示。

When Beowulf dives upwards through the water and reaches the surface,“The surging waves, great tracts of water, / were all cleansed...”(1.1620-21).

这里,被引用的诗句以斜线号隔开,斜线号与前后字母及标点符号间均需空一格;圆括弧中小写的1是line的缩写;21不必写成1621。如果引用的诗句超过三行,仍需将引用的诗句与论文文字分开(参见第四项第2点内容)。

五、英语论文的文献目录

论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点:

1.目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。

2.目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码;如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为2.5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为0.6cm;各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为0.6cm,不必留出更多空白。

3.各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等;各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。

4.各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。

现将部分较为特殊的条目分列如下,并略加说明,供读者参考。

Two or More Books by the Same Author

Brooks, Cleanth. Fundamentals of Good Writing: A

Handbook of Modern Rhetoric. NewYork: Harcourt, 1950.

---The Hidden God: Studies in Hemingway, Faulkner, Yeats,

Eliot, and Warren. New Haven: Yale UP,1963.

引用同一作者的多部著作,只需在第一条目中注明该作者姓名,余下各条目则以三条连字符及一句点代替该作者姓名;各条目须按书名的第一个词(冠词除外)的字母顺序排列。

An Author with an Editor

Shake speare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. Ed. Louis B.

Wright. New York: Washington Square, 1959.

本条目将作者 Shakespeare 的姓名排在前面,而将编者姓名(不颠倒)放在后面,表明引文出自 The Tragedy of Macbeth;如果引文出自编者写的序言、导言等,则需将编者姓名置前,如:

Blackmur, Richard P.Introduction. The Art of the Novel:

Critical Prefaces. By Henry James. New York: Scribners,

1962.vii-xxxix.

如果引言与著作为同一人所写,则其格式如下例所示(By后只需注明作者姓即可):

Emery, Donald. Preface. English Fundamentals. By Emery.

London: Macmillan, 1972.v-vi.

A Multivolume Work

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. 4 vols. London: Faber, 1928.

Browne, Thomas. The Works of Sir Thomas Browne. Ed.

Geoffrey Keynes. Vol.2. London: Faber, 1928. 4 vols.

第一条目表明该著作共4卷,而论文作者使用了各卷内容;第二条目则表明论文作者只使用了第2卷中的内容。

A Selection from an Anthology

Abram, M. H.“English Romanticism: The Spirit of the Age.”

Romanticism Reconsidered. Ed. Northrop Frye. New

York: Columbia UP,1963.63-88.

被引用的英语论文名须用引号标出,并注意将英语论文名后的句点置于引号内。条目末尾必须注明该文在选集中的起止页码。

Articles in Journals, Magazines, and Newspapers

Otto, Mary L.“Child Abuse: Group Treatment for Parents.”

Personnel and Guidance Journal 62(1984): 336-48.

报刊杂志名需划线,但其后不需任何标点符号。62为卷号或期号,如既有卷号,又有期号,则要将二者以句号分开。如:(3.3);1984为出版年份,应置于圆括弧中。

Arnold, Marilgn.“Willa Cathers Nostalgia: A Study in

Ambivalance.”Research Studies Mar.1981:23-24,28.

月刊或双月刊须同时注明出版年月;23-24,28表示该文的前一部分刊于第23和24两页,后一部分则转至第28页。

Gorney, Cynthia.“When the Gorilla Speaks.”Washington Post

31 July,1985:B1.

引用日报上的英语论文必须同时注明报纸出版的年、月、日。B1为该文在报纸中的版面及页码。参考文献(略)(摘自《外语与外语教学》1999年第8期，原文：“英语论文写作规范”作者 刘新民)

写得好的话拿高分(前面的试题无大失误的前提下)会领先其他考生一大截分数，要是写砸了那么对这次的语文考试总分是极其不利的。下面是中考语文作文写作的八大注意事项。

1、作文题目要审清

在作文题目中，决定作文中心立意点的词语称为主题词。研读题目，找出主题词，进而挖掘主题词所蕴涵的思想、情感就显得尤为关键。

如题目“我也衔过一枚青橄榄”，作文题中的主题词是“青橄榄”，青橄榄的特点是先酸涩后甘甜，就如同我们成长过程中历经磨难方能采摘到的成功果实，推敲出这一点，文章的中心立意点恐怕也就不言而喻了。但是，审题到这里，远没有结束，我们还必须进一步探究题目中的“我”、“也”、“一枚”等词语的作用。“我”，说明文章该以第一人称写，写自己的经历，“一枚”，说明只要写一次收获。

只有将这些因素综合起来考虑，我们的审题过程才算完整，题意才有可能理解正确。

2、切入角度要新颖

要想在众多的考生作文中脱颖而出，赢得阅卷老师的青睐，作文切入角度的新颖不失为一条行之有效的途径。

如写“告别”，很多同学写告别家人、告别同学、告别朋友等，这样的文题当然可以，但写的人多了，阅卷者难免会觉得乏味，如果作文语言不是很精彩，那么你的作文就很难得到高分。

但有些考生就很聪明，他们舍弃了这些考生常用的话题，而另辟蹊径，有的写“告别青春”，“告别幼稚”等，这样新颖别致的文题就很能引起阅卷老师的注意，如果言之成理或描述得当，则很容易得高分。

3、文章点题要适当

中考作文要有更鲜明的点题意识，一般都能注意在作文的开头和结尾点题，在文章的主体部分必须有意识地点题。

按表达方式的不同，大体可分三类。

1、通过抒情点题。

2、通过描写点题。

3、通过议论点题。

考场上，由于时间紧、任务重，考生宜在文章内容流转交汇之处，不失时机地点明题旨，回扣题意，才能大大加深阅卷者对作文思路清晰、中心突出的印象。

4、卷面书写要工整

卷面脏乱不堪的作文会让阅卷者望而生厌，难得高分，而且很多考区都把卷面书写列为得分项，由此可见对卷面书写要求之高。中考作文字迹要工整，卷面要整洁，这就要求考生在平时要养成一种良好的习惯。

写作时细心些，少写或不写错别字，如遇确实要修改的地方，千万不要在错误的地方肆意涂抹，你可以用小括号把错的地方括起来再用笔在错的地方轻轻地画一条横线，这样你的卷面就不会很差了。

5、思想内容要深刻

在作文的思想内容上，不外乎“真、细、活”三个字。具体来说，“真”，就是写自己的真情实感;“细”，就是把主要的情节一定要写得细致;“活”，就是要在节骨眼上用一两句话传神。

如何做到这三点要求呢?即要学会“大中取小”、“小中见大”。

1、“大中取小”，即有一类作文题目十分宽泛，可写的材料很多，写这类题目要善于缩小，把众多材料浓缩到一点，找准切人点，还要善于化抽象为具体，加上适当的限制或设置副标题，这些都是写好大题目的好方法。

2、而“小中见大”，则是指题目小而具体要写出有深刻意义的主题，比如“今日家事”就应从一件家庭琐事反映社会变革的重大主题。

6、下笔之前要提纲

提纲要确实反映自己的思路，即在头脑中要有一个你这篇文章的大概写作思路。

写之前要考虑好三点：选用哪些材料，怎样组织材料，和怎样连贯全文。

提纲不需要细写，只需要画个层次即可。做到条理清楚、层次分明、简明扼要、突出文章每一部分的要求。至于文章细部的安排，可在写作过程中进一步落实。编写提纲没有固定格式。

7、文章标题要漂亮

”题好一半文“，标题应在作文之初就开始认真考虑，并且下工夫琢磨。

好标题的首要条件是：

1、切旨。标题要吃透材料精神，反映其主旨。

2、切体。拟题要合乎体裁。

在此基础上，标题还要炼新求美求趣。

可巧引流行歌曲，可运用拟人、比喻、反复、设问等修辞格，可套用流行语，可引用电影名、名句或成语，还可采用散文化或诗化语言。

8、开头结尾要精彩

文章的开头和结尾最忌讳出现套话、空话，作文的开头可以感情色彩适当浓一些，或者是开门见山地直接表达感情、立场，并为下文做铺垫。

有的同学在开头设置悬念，采用倒叙的写作手法，以达到引人注意的效果，这些都是可以尝试的。

：

英语写作中最重要的还是平时多积累。下面语文迷网小编为大家带来了英语写作技巧，欢迎参考选择。

一、简单单词别拼写错误。

也先告诉大家先敲一个警钟!高考答题时，尽量别出现单词拼写错误，要是比较长的单词拼错了还好说，那种最简单的单词千万不要拼错!如果错了可能就不是扣分的问题，也许后果很严重!

二、书写要公整

你们平时自认为很潇洒的字体放大了后是什么样你们自己可以想象一下，什么样的字在电脑上看最舒服，确定一定以及肯定的告诉你们，就是那种各位认为很幼稚的字体!

就是刚学英语的孩子写的abcdefg,圆圆的胖胖的，很可爱的那种字体，而且千万要一个字母一个字母的写，不要连在一起!也就是说最好用标准园体。

三、第一印象要好，要唬得住阅卷老师

有一点需要大家知道，大家知不知道高考批卷老师是怎样批英语作文的?通读文章，找华丽的句子?找语法应用?挑错误?扣分，分等?打分?估计你们老师是这样告诉你们的。

现在我告诉你实际情况!我们中国人相对于西方人有个特点，就是第一印象认定的事情不太愿意改!解释一下，拿到你的作文，批卷老师大概读一下，会在心中确立一个等级，一等是21分到25分，二等是16分到20分，三等是11分到15分......

最要命的是，一旦老师心中确立了你的等级，就不愿意再更改了!也就是说，接下来细看你作文写得好坏，一般也只是在相应等级内变动了!

我们就要想尽一切办法给老师留下一等文的第一印象!(也就是一上来就要把老师唬住!)这样，作文的分数，一般只是在相应等级内变动了。

四、善用不常用词，长句

教你们几个当时我最喜欢我最喜欢用的装酷小技巧，首先就是very这个单词，以后不要再用了，弄哪个那，extraordinary!

这个单词高中生会用的不多，不用掌握什么用法，就记住用very的地方都可以替换成这个，绝对比用very拉风!

然后那，however这个单词不知道你们掌握得好不好，教大家一个玩赖的技巧，一个句子+逗号+however+另一个句子;

这里面however是没有实际意义的，就是表转折，但你可以用这招把两个简单句捏在一块啊!短句子成长句了!

五、改用倒装句

就是把很简单的句子，用一点小技巧，改成比较无耻的倒装句!举个例子，我不光唱歌，而且跳舞怎么说?

i not onle sing ,but also dance，改动一下，not only doi sing,but also dance.倒装句!(虽然简单且无耻，但谁敢说这不是倒装句?)此方法最适合倒装句掌握的不好的同学写出来骗批卷老师：大哥(姐)我会倒装句!

六、让你的文章与众不同，不做土人，只做牛人

让文章与众不同，那些还远远不够!必须先从最简单的地方着手，让自己的文章与众不同，就像我前面说的能用very的地方都换成extraordinary，十个人九个用very而你用extraordinary，那你不就与众不同了吗!

再给你们补充一些，重要的怎么说?important?这是土人用的!牛人用什么?牛人用significant!由于怎么说?as a result?土人!

牛人用什么?牛人用as a consequence. 所以怎么说?so?土人!牛人怎么说?牛人用therefore!(别看therefore这个单词简单，知道用它代替so的同学不多啊!)

举个例子，I got up early，therefore i was late. 类似的替换的单词很多，比如以后set这个单词不要用了，替换成establish。越来越好怎么说?

土人也许会用better and better，牛人只用一个单词：enhance 造个句子 we need to enhance our English，就等于better and better。

好怎么说?土人用good，比他们强一点的人也许会用great， wonderful，但牛人用什么?牛人用gorgeous，更牛的人用fabulous，简单的替换一下，水平立刻显现出不一样了。

不想要怎么说?土人会用unwanted，牛人用unsatisfactory。改变怎么说?土人用change，牛人用transform。

类似的替换技巧有很多，但由于时间太长了多数都忘了，你们自己也可以总结积累一下，不要做土人，做牛人!

七、语法

以上的问题解决了，我们来说一下语法，从句。相信很多同学掌握的不是很好，我教大家一些简单的技巧?首先弄清句子的最主要成分是什么?

主语加谓语。不管大家写多复杂的句子，一定记住不管写多复杂的句子，没有谓语动词不叫句子!接下来具体地说语法的技巧：

有一个很简单的从句，叫宾语从句，I think that...... 没有人不会用吧，不过我奉劝大家尽量别这么用，老师批10张卷子看到了8张里面有I think that不烦吗?

如果一定要用宾语从句的话换一种说法：I have a thought that......别看只改动了一点，同位语从句!同样I hear that谁都会用吧，不过同样谁都会用所以我们不要用!

厉害一些的人会用：It is reported that......不过真正的牛人用Ther e is a piece of news that 同样的意思，但明显比I hear that要帅!

还有一种从句叫定语从句很多人也愿意用，不过我建议大家不要用，因为其实在英语里，定语从句是种挺白痴的句子，没人说的!

(你们看美国大片时发现过有人说定语从句吗?)不过如果大家非要用我教大家一个必杀!很少有人知道的!其实定语从句是可以并列排比的!这招凑字数最好使，写出来也挺酷的。

这招凑字数最好使，写出来也挺酷的。举个例子，我喜欢玩篮球，然后篮球有很多种特点;

就可以把这些特点用定语从句的形式并列出来：I love basketball，which is......，which is......，which is.......

其实在上千年前，我们的老祖宗就会这么用了，大家学过韩愈的师说吧，里面有句话：师者，所以传道授业解惑也。

这就是个经典的定语从句，翻译过来就是teacher is a job who传道，who授业and who 解惑。

这种定语从句你要是用出来绝对能吓批卷老师一跳!

一、网络评论的概念

网络评论是就某个新闻事实或新闻事件借助网络媒体所发表的评论。主要区别于电视、报刊、广播等传统媒体上刊载的评论。网络评论与传统媒体的载体不同，严格意义上，网络转载的其他媒体的评论，不属于网络评论，网络评论是借助网络媒体所发表的原创评论。

二、网络评论的特点

据有关数据显示，中国网民数量已达5.64亿，其中，10—19岁网民是最大的用户群体，拥有高中学历者占到39.4% ，主要构成群体是青年学生和城市白领。由于网络载体的原因，网络评论与报纸、电视等评论存在不少差异，其特点是：反应迅速、文章短小、观点鲜明、论证新颖、语言鲜活。

1、反应迅速。新闻事件发生后，纸媒、电视等媒体要发布评论，有时要受制于出版和播出时间的限制，而网评不受这个限制。比如人民网人民网评在发布莫言获得诺奖的评论就发表在2012年11月11日当天，而人民日报《让文学回归我们的内心》则在第二天了，人民日报海外版《从莫言获奖说起》、《莫言获奖空前不绝后》则在2012年11月13日。

2、文章短小。纸媒评论一般字数在1000——1200字左右，人民日报的“人民论坛”字数在1200字左右;而网络评论字数一般在1000字以内，人民网的“人民网评”现在一般在1000字左右;新华网的“新华网评”则在800字左右的较多。

3、 观点鲜明。网评的观点受制于网络媒体的特点和网络受众的特点，它的观点通常都是开门见山，直抒胸臆。不像纸媒评论以及杂文那样，需要铺垫、绕弯，而是直接提出自己的观点，紧接着就论述。但是网络评论的标题制作一般较长，基本上是把新闻事件和观点同时表达出来。

4、论证新颖。网络是一个新媒体，网络评论的作者新人也较多，许多人没有传统媒体的条条框框，与我们生活着的现实世界联系紧密，从论证技巧到语言文字都有着新鲜的痕迹。王石川的《致考生，努力了你就无悔青春》这篇评论，就借用了年轻人喜欢的歌曲《致青春》，拉近了评论与年轻读者的距离。“青春是一场渐行渐远的诗歌，无论悲欢，都是记忆;无论好坏，都不是终点。走过这段路，轻装上阵，迎接下一个渡口。”他的这种观点在《致青春》的歌曲氛围中，是很容易被考生们接受的。

5、语言鲜活。网络评论在很多时候都使用了网络语言。除了文中使用以外，有许多网评标题也都是由鲜活的语言组织起来的：《“电荒”源于利润“掐架”》、 《新车改：没有执行力，“神马”仍将都是“浮云》 、《 “菜鸟”能给马云下多大的蛋》.......

网络语言是伴随着网络的发展而新兴的一种有别于传统平面媒介的语言形式。它以简洁生动的形式，一诞生就得到了广大网友的偏爱，发展神速。比如“杯具”、“神马都是浮云”、“ 斑竹 ”等等。鲜活的网络语言甚至影响了正规的纸媒。2010年11月10日《人民日报》头版头条刊登《江苏给力“文化强省”》一文，就用了网络词汇“给力”，中国组织人事报评论：《正确对待群众的“拍砖”》就用了网络语言“拍砖”。

所以，网络评论写作，要使用网络语言，这样，写出的评论才是网络评论而不是别的什么评论。

三、网络评论写作技巧：

(一)重视选题。

1、选题的意义：新闻稿或者信息，最“金贵”的还在于选题、立意，题是文章的点睛之笔。

特别是在“读题时代”、“速读时代”，找选题=找新闻;筛选题=选出特别值得做的新闻，放弃暂不值得做的新闻。一篇稿件的生命价值在很大程度上取决于立意选题。

凡是成功的新闻稿件都离不开选题好这一点。第21届中国新闻奖网络评论一等奖《依法理性表达爱国热情》、第22届中国新闻奖网络评论一等奖《“老何说和”说了些什么?》选题首先都不错。

2、如何选题：这个还是要依照新闻的价值来选择，即新闻的新鲜性、重要性、显著性、接近性、趣味性这样五个方面。

通常，新闻新闻，新鲜性这个要素是必须具备的，五个方面都能顾及到更好，一般只能兼顾两三点。

例：《北京警方夜查天上人间等4家豪华夜总会》这篇新闻稿，这五个方面都有所涉及。比如首次查办高档夜总会是新鲜性;天上人间的政治胭脂到底有多厚是重要性;首都多年以来首次查办高档夜总会是显著性，腐败是社会普遍关注的问题，这是接近性，高档妓女则是趣味性。

3、网络评论选题的特性：

比新闻还要注重选择。

因为评论是新闻的衍生物，是对新闻的进一步拓展，所评论的新闻本身是否具有价值对评论可以说具有生杀予夺的影响。由头的新闻价值高，受众的关注度高，读者相对来说也会较多。反之，由头是个没有拓展意义的新闻，是个不值得评论的新闻，那么，“皮之不存，毛将焉附”?勉强为之的评论一般也不会受到读者过多的关注。

选题确定了，评论就有了明确的目标;选题定不下来，评论犹如老虎吃天或者无头苍蝇;选题如果选错了，评论就可能失败。

选题还涉及到写什么和从哪个角度采写的问题。因为新闻事件是纷繁的，所以必须选择;还因为新闻事件是复杂的，所以必须选择角度。也就是说，选什么是个大主题，确定之后，还要确定从哪个角度切入。

(二)制作一个“点睛”的标题

著名散文家秦牧说过：“好的题目，总是概括力很大，饶有深意，引人深思，能激发人们的阅读兴趣。” 写文章，一个好的文章标题能起到画龙点睛的作用，那么对于网络评论的标题来说，一个精彩的标题更是能提高这篇评论的点击率。

例： 《丈母娘眼光直瞄教育短板》

这个标题，是我们根据文章题意和作者原来的标题最终制作成的。原题是《丈母娘，你辛苦了!》文章主要说一个女老师曾有一个得意门生，若干年后别人给她女儿介绍的对象，碰巧就是这位得意门生。但老师却坚决反对：“你看他的背，好像有些驼了;走起路来怕踩着了蚂蚁，就像个小老头;你看他的眼镜，镜片那么厚，至少也有七八百度;你再看他说话细声细气的，哪像个小伙子，更不说像个男子汉了;最让我看不上眼的是他那么古板，表情那么单一，一点幽默感都没有……”文章最后说：“丈母娘推高房价”、“史上最牛丈母娘有27项择婿标准”，而此次为教育“把脉开方”的竟然又是丈母娘!丈母娘真是太辛苦了。

修改过程为：《丈母娘，你辛苦了!》——《丈母娘眼光直指短板》——丈母娘眼光直瞄教育短板。这篇稿子央视专门介绍了，人民网、新华网等也都转载了，人民网还将其提到首页显著位置。

“看书看皮，看报看题”，这种现象一方面在说现在是读题时代和读图时代，另外一方面也真实地反映出了好标题的作用。

好的网络评论标题应具备的特点：直接、准确、简洁、新颖、生动。

1、直接。最好是观点的直接反应。

我们说过，网评的受众多是年轻人，时间少、很忙碌，网评标题制作最好一目了然，一看就知道是说在什么。比如《虐童不是家务事》，《莫忘“租友”的先天缺陷》、《名人八卦当休矣》。

2、准确。准确是指，标题要恰当地概括或者点出稿件的核心内容。标题中最好包含评论内容的关键词，做到题文相符。这样，读者看到关键词，如果有兴趣，就会逗留，甚至看下去。《音乐下载收费，切忌操之过急》、《世界水日，为水请命》、《反思“到此一游”背后的社会成因》，都比较恰当地反映出了评论的主要内容。

有一篇网评的题目为《韩国看不上爱国者》，从字意看，似乎是”韩国看不上热爱祖国的韩国人”，而实际上，文章中的“爱国者”指的是美国的“爱国者—3”导弹系统。那么，这个题目就不准确，容易引起歧义。

还有一篇来稿：《手机控，微博控，加剧道德“失控”》，说的是西安发生的一件事：发生了车祸，诸多围观者却只顾拿手机拍照发微博，没人救援的事。文中的主要观点是：手机控，微博控，加剧道德“失控”，加速良知流失。事实上，执勤民警打了120，而且，手机控，微博控，与道德“失控”在逻辑上没有必然联系。因此，这个标题就不准确。

3、简洁。简洁是指文章的题目用语要精炼。能用3个字说清楚的，决不用5个字，能用5个字说清楚的，决不用8个字。

按照阅读习惯，一般纸媒评论标题在4——8个字较好。但是网络评论标题得字数稍多，主要是为了要把新闻信息和观点都包含进去，字数太少，或者标题太虚，会让读者感觉摸不着头脑。

例：《中国足球那点事儿》，绝不是说中国足球出了什么事了，而是在探讨中国足球应该怎么走出困境。因此完整的话应该是“中国足球如何改变年复一年的沉沦”。但是，作者在确定题目时，对题目进行了语言的艺术提炼，使题目精练了。

4、新颖。会有一些作者用同样的新闻由头写评论，编辑用稿胜出的，很多是标题新颖的。

例：前一阵关于“拆迁暴富”的新闻由头，手头有这样几个标题：《拆迁暴富是福还是祸?》 、《农民拆迁暴富返贫现象值得关注》、《如何看‘拆迁暴富’现象》、《如何打破‘拆迁暴富’魔咒》。就我个人的看法，最后一个标题较好。因为它新颖，新颖在“魔咒”这两个字。

另外，《航母Style：娱乐版的爱国表达》，新颖在航母范儿;《秦岭毁容，无异于“焚琴煮鹤”》，新颖在“焚琴煮鹤”很少用来作标题上;《传播“快时代”要有“慢思考”》，新颖在提出了“快时代”的时代特征。

5、生动。标题的生动，就是标题让人看后要有跳跃感。要让静态的变动态;让枯燥的变有趣;让抽象的变具象。那么，标题就会生动起来。例：《开咬茅奖的N个好处》，就是用了“咬”这个动词，使标题生动了起来。而《“烂娃桃”的“桃子生态学”》这个标题，则是令人感到有趣。

在第二次世界大战中，英国吃了不少败仗，邱吉尔上台当首相时，为了鼓舞斗志曾发表过一篇有名的演说，其中有这么一句：“我所能奉献给你们的只是鲜血、劳累、眼泪和汗水”。从那以后，许多英国人都引用这句话，但都只记住了“鲜血、眼泪和汗水”，而把“劳累”一词遗忘了。因为“劳累”是一个抽象的字眼，难以捉摸，而其它3个词都是具象的，能给人以深刻印象的形象的东西。

导语：我们在写作的时候说明文有什么样的写作技巧呢？以下是小编为大家分享的小学说明文的写作技巧，欢迎借鉴！

说明文，即用来解释或说明事物、理论、方法、过程或某种抽象概念的文章。说明文的基本目的就是说清楚。也就是说，要让人看了文章后对文章中解释或说明的对象有清晰明确的认识。这就决定了说明文的基本特征是客观和科学。

说明文首要的一点是明确说明的 对象，然后用准确的语言，结合多种说明手法对之进行介绍和描述。常用的说明手法有下定义、分类别、作比较、引资料、举例子、列数字、画图表等。下定义，即给要说明的对象下一个明确的定义。如博物馆的定义就是征集、保藏、陈列和研究代表自然和人类的实物,并为公众提供知识、教育和欣赏的文化教育机构。分类别是将要说明的对象按照某种标准划分类别，以帮助读者对事物的理解。如电视机，可以分为彩色电视机和黑白电视机。作比较，即将这种事物与那种事物比较异同，从而更清楚地说明事物的特点。如将城市和乡村作比较，将大学和幼儿园作比较等。作比较的时候一定要注意比较的事物之间应当具有可比性，不能生拉硬扯，也不能不尊重客观事实，胡乱比较。为了说明某种事物的特点，有时候需要介绍它的背景、原理、历史等，这时就要用到引资料这种手法。比如我们要对长城进行说明，适当地引用一些历史文献，就更有助于今天的人们了解长城的历史，从而加深对长城中所蕴含的民族精神的认识。在复杂说明文中，列图表具有不可替代的优势。大量的数据、冗长的叙述、复杂的相互关系等，都可以通过图表得到直观的表达。

按说明的对象不同，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文。前者着重在于说明的成因、构造、形状、用途等，后者则重在说明事理。这两类说明文常用的写作手法也有一定的区别。比如事物说明文重在说明事物的物理特征，常用的是下定义、分类别等说明手法，事理说明文重在说明事物的逻辑特征，地要用到引资料、作比较等说明手法。但时候，在同一篇文章中，几种说明手法都要用到，相辅相成，互为补充。

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。作为小，应当从小注重积累知识和调查能力的训练。比如通过剪报、记笔记、上图书馆和阅览室等途径来有意识地训练自己。

写作说明文还要注意说明的顺序。有合理的顺序，文章才能条理清晰，让人看得明白。说明顺序一般有三种，即空间顺序、时间顺序、逻辑顺序。间顺序一般有从上到下、从左到右、从前到后、从远到近等。时间顺序一般有从古到今、从过去到现在等。 逻辑顺序有从现象到本质、从原因到结果、从主要到次要、从整体到部分、从概括到具体等。什么是合理的顺序呢?这要根据人们认识事物的过程以及说明对象本身的特征、规律而定。说明事物的形状、构造等，往往以空间为顺序;说明事物的成因、方法，往往以时间为顺序;说明事物的事理，往往以逻辑关系为顺序。

当然，大多数说明文会综合使用多种说明顺序。因此，在写作时，我们要合理地安排好说明顺序，理清说明文的结构层次。常用的结构层次有并列式、层进式和总分式三种。比如我们以“水”为题目进行写作，可以先写水的外形特征，再写水的分类，然后写水的用途，这是并列式的写作层次。我们也可以先写水的外形，再写水的成因，最后写水给人类带来的利与害，这是层进式的结构层次。先概括水的用途和特征，再一一细述，就是总分式。

说明文的特点

说明文是一种对事物作客观说明的一种文体，目的在于给予读者知识。中学生对说明文的写作最感头痛，往往举步维艰。其实，说明文的写作并非像同学们所害怕的那样，只要理顺了头绪，把阅读说明文和写作说明文结合起来，以阅读课文为写作借鉴的范例，多观察、多分析、多练习，就能逐步学会选用恰当的说明方法，正确而有条理地说明事物的特征

第一，要写好一篇说明文，首先得分清说明文和记叙文的区别。说明文的写作是授人以知，让人明白，记叙文写作目的是以情感人、让人动情。说明文只是说明事物的特征，阐明原理，介绍知识，说明是手段。说明文与议论文的区别，主要在于说明文的目的主要是说明，议论文的目的则主要是说理；说明文要求把实体事物或抽象事理本身的情况说清楚，议论文则要求提出个人对议论对象的看法或主张

第二，要完成一篇说明文，须将说明文的特点烂熟于心。说明文的特点主要有说明性、知识性、科学性、实用性。只有很好地掌握了说明文的这些特点，才能将说明文写好

第三，须将说明文的类型分清楚，如果从内容上而言，说明文可分为事物说明文和事理说明文，如果从表达方式上分，可以分为平实说明文和科学小品文事物说明文：以具体事物为说明对象，将事物是怎样的作为说明重点，对事物的状态、性质、功能、构造、发展变化等特征，进行科学说明。事理说明文：以事物的发生，发展变化以及相互联系的成因等为说明对象的说明文，说清怎么样和为什么，使人不仅知其然，还要知其所以然平实性说明文：是指用平实、简洁、明白的语言对事物的外形，内部结构，功用及种属关系加以较客观的说明，用词造句一般不带感情色彩和主观倾向，很少使用描写，更少使用修辞手法。

一、卷面书写应工整

卷面是作文的门面，卷面书写洁净工整会让人赏心悦目，能博得阅卷老师的好感;而卷面脏乱不堪的作文只能让阅卷者望而生厌，难得高分。

我省从去年开始，中考命题时就已把卷面书写列为得分项，分值为8分，由此可见对卷面书写要求之高。今年我市考生卷面书写质量有很大程度提高，脏乱差的卷面数量大幅度减少。但仍有为数不少的考生卷面不够整洁，乱涂乱抹，这就直接影响了他的作文得分。

二、思想内容应深刻

思想内容深刻是作文得分关键。今年我市高分作文大多是内容丰富，见解深刻的作文，考生或阐述对生活的感悟，或表达自己对生活独到的见解;而那些得分较低的考生作文，内容则显得空洞贫乏，缺少实实在在的内涵，仅仅是凑一些字数，敷衍成一篇非常乏味的“政治式论述题”。因此考生在写作文时一定要结合自己的实际生活阅历，运用自己的眼光去深入思考、提炼作文的主题，表达自己的生活感悟，展示自己的思想境界，写出一篇实实在在的文章，切不可蜻蜓点水一带而过，更不可架空文章。

三、篇章结构应完整

结构完整，这是中考作文最基本的要求。一篇未及完篇的作文，无论语言多么优美，观点如何新颖，也只能归入三类卷，所以在中考作文时一定要避免无结尾作文的出现。如果实在没有时间，也应结合作文的开头急就一个作文结尾。

其次，中考作文一定要做到主题集中，作文应围绕同一主题作深入阐述，切忌东拉西扯，主题涣散甚至无主题。

另外，作文篇幅也应控制在600~700字之间，作文太短了，会让人觉得内容单薄，太长了又会让人感到厌烦。

四、切入角度应新颖

要想在众多的考生作文中脱颖而出，赢得阅卷老师的青睐，作文切入角度的新颖不失为一条行之有效的途径。今年我省的中考作文为半命题作文，大部分的考生都是从题目的提示语中选择一个词语填入题中，如写珍惜拥有的“亲情”、“青春”、“幸福”等，这样的文题当然可以，但写的人多了，阅卷者难免会觉得乏味，如果作文语言不是很精彩，那么你的作文就很难得到高分。但有些考生就很聪明，他们舍弃了这些考生常用的话题，而另辟蹊径，有的写珍惜拥有的“挫折”，有的写珍惜拥有的“对手”等，这样新颖别致的文题就很能引起阅卷老师的注意，如果言之成理或描述得当，则很容易得高分。

五、表达形式应多变

有些学生在写作文时不懂分段，一篇作文就老三段——开头、中间、结尾，甚至全文就一段，这就使得作文显得非常呆滞，难以引起阅卷老师的重视而得不到高分。

而今年我市中考作文形式多样，从体裁上看，有记叙文，有抒情散文，有日记体作文，还有诗歌、戏剧等。在表现形式上，有以题记式开篇的，有以后记式结篇的，还有的将全篇分成几个小片段，每个片段冠以一个小标题，几个片段构成一个有机整体的。这样，多变的形式为作文获得高分加上了一个有力的砝码。

因此学生在平时作文训练时应有意识的加强文体训练，多吸取别人作文的成功经验，努力使自己的作文在形式上不拘一格。

六、语言表达应有味

语言项是作文主要采分点。考生在平时的作文训练中，应尽量提高自己的语言表达能力，并力争形成自己的语言风格。

今年我市中考作文在语言表达上可谓异彩纷呈：有俏皮幽默的，有老成持重的，有清新亮丽的，有古朴典雅的……优美有味的语言让阅卷老师拍案叫绝，也为作文获得高分提供有力保障。

尽管语言优美是较高要求，需长期努力训练方能得到，但我们在平时作文训练时注意提炼语言则很必要，也很有效。语言是作文的外在表现形式，阅卷者在判你作文时首先就是看你的语言，语言不够精彩就可能失去得高分的机会，因为中考阅卷时间紧、任务重，每篇作文在阅卷者眼中停留的时间一般只有一分钟左右，在这么短的时间内，阅卷者是不可能细细琢磨推敲你的作文的，如果你的作文开头就显得很拖沓，写了一大段还没写到点子上，那么你的作文可能就要面临得低分的命运了。

因此，考生在写作文时开头应简洁，并迅速入题，尽量做到语言表达的生动精彩。作文中间段落每段开头的语言应简洁生动，并尽量在每段开头用优美的语句概括本段内容或紧扣作文主旨。作文的结尾更要注意锤炼语言并再扣主题，如能用画龙点睛式的句子突出中心或升华中心，则效果更好，应尽量避免使用“所以”“因此”一类的字眼作总结，因为这样很容易让人觉得你不是在写作文，而是在回答问答题。

同学们写议论文时，有的文章却脉络不明，似断似连，甚至出现裂痕，缺乏过渡这个段与段、层与层之间的桥梁纽带。不妨回顾一下，我们读过的许多文章，学过的不少课文，之所以如行云流水般通畅自然，没有人工斧凿的痕迹，是与恰当安排过渡分不开的。那么议论文中的 过渡主要包括哪些方面呢?

一、材料与观点的过渡，常用的表述方式：

(1)这则材料告诉我们这样一个道理……(得到了这样的启示……)

(2)这虽是一则寓言，但却形象地说明了……(这则材料的寓意是……)

(3)由此观之……

(4)为什么会这样呢?

(5)由此，我明白了一个深刻而又平凡的道理……

【例1】

我曾读过一本书，是说美国人的消费，美国人都是花未来的钱，而享受现在，‘举债度日’，我想一旦出现无赖不肯还钱，怎么办?原来美国有个信用局，若某君出现信用违规，即通知各大银行，封杀他的所有借款，此招足以使其无立身之地。这让我想起了中国的诚信，诚信是国人引以为傲的美德，‘人无信而不立’。”

二、论点与论述之间的过渡

话题作文，学生从话题包含的内容，生发开去，阐述见解。一部分学生写议论文，提出中心论点，然后结合生活和社会现象对论点进行论证，但缺乏必要的语言过渡，使观点与材料分离。写作中，由提出论点到联系现实进行分析论证，学生常常使用“现实生活也有同类者”“我不禁想到现实生活中的同类现象”等句子进行过渡，形成观点与论述之间的自然转换，文气贯通。

1、由此，我联想到我们人类社会……

2、物性如此，我们人类何尝不是这样……

3、……这给我们一个深刻的启示……

4、物犹如此，人亦然。

【例2】

马卡连柯的话令人深思。对花赞赏之余，为什么要手里拿起铁铲、剪刀和巴黎绿呢?为什么不考虑花是否愿意接受呢?这是因为花虽美，但美中也会有不足之处，美中会有隐患。如果不及时清除那些杂枝、病枝、虫害，再美的鲜花也会衰败、凋零。物性如此，人类何尝不是这样，我们的师长在表扬肯定我们的优点和成绩的同时，更要指出我们存在的缺点和不足，也就是说，要想“爱之深”，就得“责之切”。

三、理论论证与事实论证之间的过渡。

论辩时理论论证为使论述变得深刻，事实论证为使论证显得具体，分析说理时联系生活实际，避免泛泛而谈，内容空洞，两者结合使用就应注意由此及彼的恰当过渡。

(一)事实到理论

1、“就拿……来说吧”或“例如……”来过渡;

2、纵观古今，凡是……无不是……

3、古往今来，无数成功者的业绩都……

4、纵观古今中外名人学者的成功历程，不难发现，他们的成功的秘诀在于……

5、放眼寰球，纵观古今，大凡有……无不是……

【例3】

古往今来，情感高于理性的事情屡见不鲜，而理性控制情感的例子也不少。

【例4】

历览古来圣贤人，无不对事物做出客观公正的评价，在处理事情上力求做到公正不偏私。

【例5】

举目四望，古今中外，有多少英雄豪杰因内心之好恶而惨遭滑铁卢?古代如此，今天亦如此，或许，将来也如此。

【例6】

历史上的教训，足以使我们对此有更为清醒的认识!

【例7】

其实，古往今来，不少人都调准了自己感情的"焦距"，为自己展现出了清晰的世界。

(二)理论到事实

若先事实论证再理论论证，过渡文字一般则是对事实包含道理的分析、总括。

1、有位哲人曾这样说过：“……”

“这正如……所说……”等词语或句子进行过渡。

2、在生活中广为传颂着这样一句名言：“……”它告诉我们这样一个深刻而又平凡的道理……

3、“……”，不正是……精神的真实写照吗?可见……

4、“……”这妇孺皆知的俗语告诉我们一个平凡而又深刻的道理：……

5、“……”这句话曾鼓舞了多少仁人志士，然而今天……

四、正面论证与反面论证之间的过渡。

1、正面分析与反面分析之间的过渡，一般借助“反之”“相反”“否则”“如果不这样”等关联性词语完成;

2、正面举例与反面举例之间的过渡则一般采用“也有与此相反的情况”“相反的事例如……”等句式过渡。

而现实生活中我们又是如何呢?

而现实生活中总有那么一小部分人……

【例8】

古人尚能如此理性面对问题，可如今的世界却有很多人，无法理性地面对自己的实际和考虑别人的情况。如果"非典"在发现初期就被重视而不隐报，也午今天的"非典"就不会如此猖撅。如果美国理性面对伊拉克的核危机，试着用卜交手段解决，也许美伊战争就不会爆发，也就不会有那么多人死伤了。

五、层与层的过渡。

为了使论述充分、深入，写议论文必须讲究说理的层次性。说理时各层次之间的关系，以并列关系和递进关系为主，具有并列关系的层次之间的过渡一般借助“同时”“还要”等关联词语过渡衔接;具有递进关系的层次之间的过渡则往往借助“不仅如此……而且”“更进一步说”以及“当然”等词句进行过渡衔接。

1、无独有偶

2、前事不忘，后事之师

3、个人如此，国家民族又何尝不是这样?

4、那么我们该怎样做呢?

【例9】

不论是故去的古人，还是现存的今人，只有做到公正无私，才能在对事物的认识上得到真理，才能在对事物的处理上得到赞美。

【例10】

在现代，有没有韩非子笔下的"富人"呢?有!譬如在干部的任用问题上就出现了"任人唯亲"的弊端，一些领导在任用下属时，不是视其是否有才能，而是看其与自己远近、使一一些无德无能的人混人干部队伍，正所谓"一人得道，鸡犬升天"。而真正有志有才之士被拒之门外。

六、辩证过渡

(一)欲进先退

在对某问题阐述自己观点见解时，先要承认与此相反的观点见解存在的合理性，然后指出其道理存在的不足之处，接着语意一转，话题转入对此观点见解的主要论述。“退”是通过承认反面的观点见解以防论证疏漏，“进”是论证文章论点的主体。

【例11】

的确，外在环境的感染作用是不可忽视的。尤其青少年思想单纯，阅历浅，经验少，辨别是非的能力还不强，世界观还未形成，触于墨者即黑，染于朱者即赤。多少青少年受坏人拉拢，看黄色书刊、录像，赌博、酗酒、偷盗、抢劫，逐渐走向犯罪的深渊。难怪昔有“孟母三迁”之举，这是促进孟子成为一代儒圣不可否认的外因条件。甚至多少知识名人、革命志士、人民功臣、劳动模范，也经受不了环境的熏染，荣华富贵的诱惑，最终沦为历史的罪人。

然而(转入论题)，事物不可一概而论，不可以事物的一般规律抹杀事物的特殊性存在。

【例12】

诚然，正是由于有了人类之间曼妙的情感，全社会乃至全世界才不至于陷入一种盲目的、机械性的单调之中就如同电影《摩登时代》和《城市之光》中描绘的那样，人的言行似乎在工业革命的浪潮中变得毫无生气，如同机器人一般。缺乏感情的社会是僵硬的，是脆弱的。然而这并不意味着仅仅凭借情感就可以主导全世界，就可以来评判事物认知的正误深浅这还需要客观的评价标准，诸如法律、法规等等而这些则又需要认知与进一步的探索。否则，理性的天平就难以使得整个世界在一种相对稳定的状态之下继续发展。

3、理性固然在认识事物中不可缺少，但我们能因此完全排除了感情因素吗?难道感情在认知过程中永远起着反面的作用吗?

其它如：诚然、固然、毋庸置疑

(二)主论先行，后堵偏漏。

当然 ; ……不是……而是;然而，凡事都有度，过犹不及

1、当然，在历史上尽管也有“近墨而不黑”、昭著史册的人物，如出污泥而不染的屈原、陶渊明;执法惩恶，廉洁自律的包拯、海瑞;屡触权贵洁身自好的郑板桥、刘镛;但毕竟凤毛麟角，为数不多。这些事物特殊现象怎能掩盖外因能促进事物量变向质变转化的一般规律呢。怎能忽视“白沙在涅，与之俱黑;蓬生麻中，不扶自直”、“近朱者赤，近墨者黑”的哲理名言呢?

2、当然，不要轻易说“不”，并不是不能说“不”。如果你面对一潭死水的生活，波澜不起，生命的冲劲早已缺席，人生的斗志也了无踪影，你应该对这样的生存现状勇敢地说“不”。1999年，高燃以一个中专毕业生的身份只身来到广州打工，又毅然抛弃月薪5000多元稳定工作，多方联系进入一家高考补习班，次年以优异的成绩考入清华大学，后来创办市值上亿元的MYSEE公司。央视记者李小萌采访他，他说，我不想过那种一眼就可以望到头的人生。高燃勇敢地跟平庸的生存状态说“不”，高燃超越了自己，他成功了。

3、我们不要轻易说“不”，并不是去做一个逆来顺受毫无原则的人，面对沉沦的陷阱和惰性的挑衅，我们要勇敢地说“不”;面对厄运的打击、失败的考验和种种执著人生的坚守，我们不要轻易说“不”。改变能改变的，接受不能改变的，坚守早就认定了的。人生的过程是一个超越自己的过程，人生的过程也是一个坚守的过程。

议论文中的过渡衔接没有固定的格式或词句，可有常用的方法。

一、单项选择题

(1)先易后难：一些考题的答案比较容易选定，可以先从这些考题入手。平时练习时，应以基础为主，主要精力不应放在偏题、怪题上。

(2)分析考查意图、运用相关知识：应学会分析出题者考查的意图，明确相关题的测试点是什么，然后运用所学知识，进行分析、判断，再进行选择。

(3)利用暗示进行选择：注意考题涉及的语境范围。平时应注重对习惯用语表达、惯用法和中英文化差别等方面知识的积累。

(4)运用排除法：可采取语言排除、逻辑排除、语法排除或选择排除等方法。先排除较容易、较明显的错误选项，缩小范围，而后对剩余的选项进行比较分析，最后确定答案。

二、完形填空题

1、搭配判断法。

根据对以往试题的分析，搭配型考题在完形填空题中占的比例最高。搭配型问题主要测试常见搭配的熟练程度，比如说哪些词要搭配不定式、动名词或某种从句，哪些词必须与某个介词搭配。我们在复习时要特别注意短语动词和介词的固定搭配。

2、结构判断法。

结构型问题主要包括句型、句式、连接词的选择等，解题时要运用句法知识，把握关键词，从而做出迅速正确的判断。完形填空题中有很多是利用语法的正确性与逻辑的排斥性间的矛盾来设计的。因此考生应结合上下文的合理性及意义关系的逻辑性选择最佳答案。完形填空中常考的逻辑关系主要有：

(1)转折、让步关系：这种关系表明后一种观点或事实与前一种观点或事实相比有些出乎意料。

常见的表示转折、让步的词或词组有：but，still，yet，however，though，although，no matter，in spite of，anyway，even if等。

(2)因果关系：

表示原因的连词或词组有：because (of )，due to，owing to，thanks to，since，for，as等。

表示结果的词或词组有：so，therefore，then，as a result，in consequence，consequently，thus等。

(3)递进、补充关系：这种关系表示对前一事实或观点做进一步阐述。

常用的词、词组有：moreover，likewise，besides，in addition，also，too，not only…but also，apart from，what‘s more 等。

(4)对比、比较关系：对比观点或事物间的差异性，比较观点或事物间的同一性。

表示对比的词或词组有：in contrast，by contrast，on the contrary，conversely，unlike，oppositely 等。表示比较的词或词组有：like，in comparison，compare…with，as，just as等。

3、词义判断法。

词汇型问题也是完形填空的一个考点，主要测试考生在段落语篇中把握语义连贯性的能力，提供选择的词可能是近义词、近形词也可能是随意拼凑的四个选项，遇到这类题，既要联系上下文，又要具有扎实的词汇基础，有时还须根据自己的文化背景知识做出判断、选择答案。

三、阅读理解

在做阅读理解题时，除了掌握前面介绍的基本题型、基本法则外，还要进行有意识的阅读训练。提高阅读能力的训练主要可以从下面几个方面入手：词汇、方法、侧重点。

1、词汇：猜词的技巧。

在阅读过程中，不可避免地会碰到不认识的单词，考试中又不允许查词典，有些不认识的单词对文章的理解影响不大，可以忽略。但有些不认识的单词则会影响阅读者对文章理解的正确性。在这种情况下，必需猜测词的含义，这就需要利用猜词的技巧了。

最基本的猜词技巧有两种：一是根据构词法的规则猜，构词法的规则在前面的章节中已有介绍，这里就不重复了;另一种猜词的技巧是根据上下文的描述、解释、列举、比较等，运用已有的知识，分析、推断该词的含义。常用的猜词技巧可归纳为以下几种：

(1)利用词根、词缀构词法推测词义。通过构词法推测词义是最常用的方法之一。

(2)分析文中对该词的直接定义推测词义。

作者在行文中有时不得不使用某些难词、偏词，为使读者理解，作者常常会在文章中直接解释该词语。作者或通过同位语，或使用定语从句加以阐明，或用冒号、破折号、括号给出，或用语篇标志词引出，这类语篇标志词有：that is (to say); e.g.;oor，in other words;to put it in another way等。如：

She is bilingual.In other words，she speaks English and French equally well.(bilingual：会说两种语言的)。

(3)分析文中对该词的近义复述推测词义。

同一短文中前后两个句子、短语或单词通常有互释作用，可以从上下文的复述中获取与某一单词或短语相关的信息以猜测词义。如：

It is difficult t

o list all of my fathe‘s attributes because he has so many different talents and abilities.(attribute：特质;才能)

(4)分析文中对该词的对比和并列表述推测词义。

利用上下文中的对比或并列表述猜测词义是最常用、最可靠的方法。有不少句子会在上下文中给出某个生词(尤其是偏词、难词)的同义词或反义词，运用对比或并列表达对这些生词加以推测。通过了解词与词之间的连接关系，特别是一些语篇标志词，如：however;on the other hand;nevertheless等，我们不难推断这些生词的词义。如：

If you agree，write “yes”;if you dissent，write “no”。(dissent：不同意）

满分作文不是那么容易就可以写出来的，要掌握一些技巧，下面是小编整理的满分作文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、审准话题

审题是作文成败的第一关，差之毫厘，谬以千里。应试时应慎重。审题准确，作文就有可能踏上成功之路;审题失误，写得再好，最多也只能得一半左右的分数。就近几年的“话题作文”而言，审准题意就是要对作文试题上展现的“材料、提示语、话题、作文要求”(即通常所说的背景语、启发语、话题语、强调语)的各个部分仔细审读揣摩，全面确切地理解文题的所有含意，这是理解话题作文的关键。具体方法为：第一步，读“背景语”和“启发语”，巧借“启发语”的提示，弄清“背景语”的隐含意义，弄懂题目要求写的就是“话题语”。第二步，弄清“强调语”有哪些要求，即弄清立意、文体、拟题、字数等要求。第三步，应围绕“话题”组材、选材，扣住话题的实质。为确保“符合题意”，在写作时，尽可能在开头点，中间提，结尾扣，这样，写就平稳的扣题文应该不成问题。

二、选妥文体

“文体自选”，不是多种文体的综合，而是为考生提供选择最擅长文体的自由。一旦选择了某种文体，写出来的文章就应该具备这种文体的特征，从而做到“符合文体要求”，而不是“四不像”。那么怎样选择文体呢?这就要根据作文的“提示语”和“要求”来考虑。若需要通过自己忆、记、闻，或涉及写人物、事件、景物、场面时，一般应选择记叙文;若需要介绍、说明事物的形状、性质、成因、关系、功用时，就应选择说明文;若需要阐述主张、表明观点，自然选择议论文。如果有的内容兼用几种体裁都可以时，就要根据自己的实际需要确定采用的文体。但不管采用什么样的文体，都要因文而异、因人而异，要充分发挥自己的优势，展示自己的才华。比如，擅长形象思维，会编故事，善于记叙、描写的同学，可选择记叙文，甚至可以选小说、童话等文学体裁;擅长推理，逻辑思维强的同学，则可选择议论文。

三、立意创新

古人云：“意高则文胜。”高考作文立意，正确是前提，但要达到我们所说的“成功”，则还要力求“深邃、高远”。判断一篇作文的立意是否深邃、高远、有创新，可从以下几方面来看：①文章有没有在深度上有所建树，在某个方面或某些方面是不是有超越大众化的见解，甚至创见。②有没有对自然、社会和人类的关注。③有没有深远的历史感与现实感。④有没有预见性。⑤有没有健康的审美情趣与高尚的情操。⑥有没有哲理性的思考……考生要在考场上写出令人耳目一新的佳作确非易事。文章要想出新，立意必须新奇。首先，要有超越一般的眼光，有时代责任感，意志坚定，情趣高尚。其次，要有历史感和预见性，能透析事理，升华哲理。再次，要从多角度联想，对同一事物从不同角度进行思考，寻求多种答案，从中选择最新最佳的角度来立意。此外，还要从个人独特的生活经历中选取素材，写别人所未写，立别人所未立

四、拟靓标题

题好一半文。标题是文章的眼睛，是让阅卷老师慧眼为之一亮的第一点。遇到“题目自拟”的作文话题，最好不要直接引用话题做标题，要尽力展示个人才华，尽量拟出让阅卷老师“一见钟情”的好标题，为获取高分奠定基础。好的标题应该是准确、简洁、新颖、别致，耀眼夺目，富有文采。拟题方法主要有①巧用修辞，如《让孤独飘飞》。②引用诗词、歌曲，如《我心中，你最重》。③改装名作，如《道德苦旅》。④术语嫁接，如《心灵比色卡》。⑤妙用标点，如《学生上网：喜耶?忧耶?》。⑥巧用数字，如《父爱“二十三”》。⑦巧借公式，如《天赋+努力=成功》等。但不论怎样拟写，都要注意锤炼词语，切合主旨。

五、合理选材

在作文中，材料往往承载和反映作者的思想、情感、观点，因此，应选择具有文化气息、蕴含人生哲理、闪耀情感光华、积极健康、引人向善、启人心智的材料。具体来说，应做到两点。一要精当。所谓“精当”，是指所选用的材料能有效地恰如其分地表现主题，没有偏离之感，没有叠加之嫌，更没有虚假之疑。二要“新颖”，即所选材料应具有时代气息，能反映社会的“热点”与“亮点”，有生活色彩，有个性特征，有独到的发现等。从范围及方式上，选材可收揽古今、链接中外、紧扣时政要闻、钻探书籍、“播放”影视、“过滤”生活。总之，要根据话题，用大视野去搜寻，大浪淘沙般筛选，选出有深意、典型、鲜活、切合主旨的材料进行写作。

六、巧妙布局

布局关系到文章的整体质量，所以写作时应认真勾画文章经纬，做到“结构完整”，力求“构思精巧”。①可采用“题记+正文”的形式，结构全文。好的题记具有意蕴丰厚、情味绵长、语言精美等特点。巧设题记可以开宗明旨，可以创设情境，也可以展露才情，它能一下子拨动阅卷者的心弦，对你的文章顿生好感。②可采用“母题+标题”的形式。把一个大的话题或意旨切分成三至四个既有内在联系又各具独立性的部分，并配以精当的小标题，既可以收到化整为零、各个击破的写作实效，也可以给阅卷者以结构清晰、脉络分明的良好印象。③可采用“引言+正文”的形式。好的引言，能升华思想感情的火花、生活哲理的闪光和人生意义的感悟，起到画龙点睛的作用。④也可采用数字化分节，一目了然，自然流畅。此外，语段上要错落匀称，长短相间，也能使文章体现一种建筑美。

七、精心开篇

古人云：“通篇之纲领在首段，首段得势，则通篇皆佳。”因而，我们必须精心开篇涂彩，力求让阅卷老师一见倾心。作文毕竟是个认识美、发现美、感悟美和创造美的过程及其具体的体现，阅卷老师只有从你文章的开篇中获得审美意趣，才能在这种情感的作用下给你高分。开头方法常见的有：①开门见山，开宗明义。②描写环境，引出人物。③特写镜头，勾人心魄。④设置悬念，引人入胜。⑤编述故事，饶有情趣。⑥设疑发问，促人深省。⑦欲扬先抑，步步为营。⑧巧引名言、歌词、谚语等。但无论哪种开头，都要以新颖独到、别致小巧的简约文字，提纲挈领，自然引起下文。

要写好记叙文，就必须要明确“为何叙”，即主题要明确。要主题明确可注意三点，小编收集了优秀记叙文写作技巧，欢迎阅读。

一、为何叙

记叙文一般可分为记人、叙事、写景、咏物等几种。记人，要表现人物的思想感情和性格;叙事，要写出事件所蕴涵的意义，这些意义可以是政治思想方面的，也可以表达某种哲理，或某种情趣;写景，要通过景物描写表现出个人某种感情或深刻的感悟;咏物，或透露出世间人生的某种乐趣，或托物言志，表现对社会上某种人某种现象的情感。因此，我们写记叙文总会有一定的目的，总要表达一定的思想和感情，实际上就是我们平常所讲的“文章的主题”，主题是文章的灵魂，它像一根红线贯串于文章的始终。没有明确主题的记叙文，只能是一篇流水帐，所以要写好记叙文，就必须要明确“为何叙”，即主题要明确。要主题明确可注意三点:第一，要有积极意义，即确定的主题思想感情必须是健康的，有意义的。

B，要集中，一篇文章只能有一个主题，全文要围绕这个中心来写。有的同学作文时，既想写这，又想写那，结果写出来的文章不是漫无中心，就是几个中心，多中心则无中心。

C，可含蓄一点，不一定直露。主题要蕴涵在具体的记叙和描写之中，一般不宜用明显的话语揭示出来，如表现人物勤劳的品质，要通过具体的事和生动的细节来表现，不宜将 "勤劳"二字当成标签贴在人物身上。又如要记叙一件有意义的事，也不宜空洞抽象地把其“意义”说上一大通，而应在具体的情节中自然地显示出来。恩格斯说过，事件的意义、人物的性格写得越隐蔽，作品的艺术魅力就越强。

二、叙什么

叙什么，就是写什么内容，在写记叙文时就要考虑选择哪些材料。选材时，要坚持三个标准，一是典型性，即选择出能充分表现中心的材料;二是真实性，即选出真人真事真景，包括来自现实生活的艺术真实;三是现实性，即选出有现实积极意义的材料。在选材具体操作时，最行之有效的选材方法是展开联想，联糸生活，即选材时可通过联想，从家庭生活、学校生活、社会生活等任意一个方面选出自己熟悉、感动的人和事。如在写《谢谢您给我的爱》(南京市95年中考作文题)时，我们不妨展开联想，从家庭生活方面选出祖辈、父辈给"我"爱的材料，从学校生活方面选出老师、同学给"我"爱的材料，从社会生活方面选出邻居、路人、警察等热心人给"我"爱的材料。材料选好，还需认真剪裁，做到详略得当，所所以还要注意两点:第一，要剪去雷同的材料。有些记叙文表现中心时不止用一个材料，那么这些材料应从不同侧面表现中心，如果从同一方面表现中心，那么其中的有些材料则属于“雷同”"的材料，应该删掉。第二，要注意详略得当。与中心关糸不大的材料要略写、与中心关糸极为密切的材料要详写。

三、怎样叙

怎样叙，就意味着怎样把一篇文章具体地写出来，这就牵涉到文章的结构、表达的方式、遣词造句等表现形式。

先说文章的结构，即所要写的这篇记叙文用什么结构来表现出来。它包括这篇文章分几层写，哪些材料先写，哪些后写，哪些详写，哪些略写，如何安排过渡，于何处伏笔，在哪里呼应，如何开头，怎样结尾，等等。从整篇记叙文来看、常见的结构有顺序、倒叙、插叙。顺叙，就是按照事情发生、发展的，过程进行叙述。包括以下几种情况:其一，按时间的推移来叙述;其二，按事情的发展来叙述;其三，按认识发展的过程来叙述;其四，按作者的行踪来叙述。倒叙，就是把事情的结局，或某个突出的精彩片断提到前边写，然后再按事件发生、发展的顺序叙述。倒叙的运用有四种类型:一种是把事件的结局提前，造成悬念，然后再按时间顺序叙述事情的发生与发展;一种是把事件中最精彩的或最紧张的片断截取下来，写在前面，震动和吸引读者，然后按时间的顺序叙述事件的起因、发展与结局;一种是先写眼前的事物，由此及彼，引起回忆，再追叙往事，形成倒叙，一种是先写当前情况，再回忆过去的情况，以形成鲜明的对比，给读者留下深刻印象。插叙，是在文章的叙述中，暂时中断叙述的线索，插入一些与中心事件有关的内容，然后再继续进行原来的叙述。插叙的具体内容和形式有种种不同:有的是追叙，对过去事件片断进行回忆，有的是补叙，对有关人和事作必要的补充、解释;有的是逆叙，对有关内容由近及远、由今及古地回溯，灵活多样的插叙，可以使主题开掘得更深刻，情节展开得更充分，内容表现得更充实，人物形象刻画得更丰满，避免了平辅直叙。

再说表达的方式。记叙文一般以记叙这种表达方式为主，但记叙文写人记事，写景状物，往往需要描写。对人物和环境作适当的描写，可以把人物、事件或景物写得有血有肉，有声有色，叫人看了如见其人，如临其境。描写的类型很多，从描写的对象划分，有人物描写和景物描写，人物描写中包括肖像、语言、行动、心理等描写方式。从描写的角度划分，有正面描写与侧面描写。这要在具体的写作中灵活运用。另外，在记人叙事的记叙文中，为了突出人物的高贵品质或突出事件的意义，有时要进行抒情和议论。再则，有时作者为抒发自己的感情，在记叙的基础上直接抒情，直接表露感情，或寓情于记叙之中，在记叙的过程中处处渗透着情感。这样综合运用好表达方式，写出来的文章就会摇曳多姿，绚烂多彩。

最后说说遣词造句。一篇记叙文最终是靠一句句话组成起来的，因此，大家在语言表达上要注意准确、鲜明、生动、形象。准确就是指用词合适、恰当;鲜明指一个词用在特定的语言环境中表示出的意思清清楚楚，明明白自，一点不含糊。生动形象，就是把词用得活泼，有声有色。这一点，就要多注意运用比喻、拟人、排比、对比、反复、夸张、反问、设问等多种修辞方法。