大学英语写作基础答案【经典20篇】

英语是一种语言，从语言学角度来看，学生在掌握一定数量的词汇与语法知识后，就要用来表达自己的思想、见解，这些落实到纸面上就是英语写作。为提高大家的英语写作能力和技巧，下面小编为大家带来英语六级写作方法技巧，欢迎大家学习!

英语六级写作方法技巧：

方法一：叙述法

叙述法发展段落主要是按照事物本身的时间或空间的排列顺序，通过对一些特有过渡连接词的使用，有层次分步骤地表达主题句的一种写作手段。用这种方法展开段落，作者能够清楚连贯地交待事物的本末，从而可以使读者可以清晰、完整地理解文章的含义，例如：，

In the flat opposite, a woman heard the noise outside. When she looked out through the window, she discovered that her neighbor was threatened by someone. She immediately called the police station. In answer to the call, a patrol police car arrived at the scene of the crime quickly. Three policemen went inside the flat at once, and others guarded outside the building to prevent anyone from escaping.，

这段是按照事物发展的先后顺序，叙述从发现案情、报警、到警察赶到、包围现场的过程。全文脉络清晰，叙述的层次感强，结构紧凑。

常用于叙述法中的过渡连接词有：first, an the beginning, to start with, after that, later, then, afterwards, in the end, finally等。

方法二：列举法

作者运用列举法，是通过列举一系列的论据对topic sentence中摆出的论点进行广泛、全面地陈述或解释，列举的顺序可以按照所列各点内容的相对重要性、时间、空间等进行。，

Yesterday was one of those awful days for me when everything I did went wrong. First, I didnt hear my alarm clock and arrived late for work. Then, I didnt read my diary properly and forgot to get to an important meeting with my boss. During the coffee break, I dropped my coffee cup and spoilt my new skirt. At lunch time, I left my purse on a bus and lost all the money that was in it. After lunch, my boss was angry because I hadnt gone to the meeting. Then I didnt notice a sign on a door that said "Wet Paint" and so I spoilt my jacket too. When I got home I couldnt get into my flat because I had left my key in my office. So I broke a window to get in and cut my hand.

根据本段主题句中的关键词组everything I did went wrong，作者列举了8点内容，分别由first, then, during the coffee break, after lunch time等连接词语引出，使得该文条理清楚、脉络分明、内容连贯。

常用于列举法的过渡连接词有：for one thing , for another, finally, besides, moreover, one another , still another, first, second, also等。

方法三：重复法

句子的一部分反复出现在段落中，这就是重复法。它往往造成一种步步紧逼的气氛，使文章结构紧凑，有感染力。比如：

Since that time, which is far enough away from now, I have often thought that few people know what secrecy there is in the young, under terror. I was in mortal terror of the young man who wanted my heart and liver; I was in mortal terror of my interlocutor with the iron leg; I was in mortal terror of myself, from whom an awful promise had been extracted; --

该段中反复应用了I was in mortal terror of …我经常处于恐怖之中。

以上， 我们结合具体文章讨论了展开段落的几种方法。在实际写作中，我们往往不必拘泥于一种写作方法，而是将若干方法穿插在一起，使文章有声有色。

方法四：因果分析法

在阐述某一现象的段落中，常采用因果分析法。例如：

The role of women in todays society is changing. One reason is that women have begun to assert themselves as independent people through the womens movement. Also, women are aware of the alternatives to staying at home. Another reason is that increasing numbers of women who enter new fields and interests serve as role models for other women. Moreover, men are becoming more conscious of the abilities of women and have begun to view their independence positively.

本段中，主题句提出了一种社会现象，推展句则对产生这种现象的原因作出各种解释。 常用于因果分析法的连接词有：because, so, as a result等。

方法五：对比法

将同类的事物按照某种特定的规则进行比较分析是一种常用的思维方法。通过对比，更容易阐述所述对象之间的异同和优缺点，例如：

The heart of an electronic computer lies in its vacuum tubes, or transistors. Its electronic circuits work a thousand times faster than the nicer cells in the human brain. A problem that might take a human being a long time to solve can be solved by a computer in one minute.

在这段文字上， 作者为了突出电子计算机运行速度之快，首先将它与人脑进行了比较， "-- a thousand times faster than --" ;而后，又将这一概念具体到了 "a problem"上，通过对比使读者从 "-- a long time -- in one minute"上有更加直观的认识。

常用于对本法或比较法上的过渡连接词有：than, compared with等。

一、了解高分作文的特点

要想作文获得高分，必须了解高分作文具有的特点，才有助于我们朝之而努力。高分作文一般具有以下特点：

1、书写工整，书面整洁，很少有涂改痕迹。

2、分段合理。全文分段一般不止一个自然段，让阅卷老师很容易就能找到作文所要求写的要点和重要句子。

3、要点齐全，不缺要点。

4、首尾呼应，自然成一体。

5、使用了大量的高级词汇和句型。阅卷老师一看就知道这个同学的功底非不一般，自然就给打高分了。

6、开头言简意赅，不啰嗦，不偏题，迅速引入主题。

7、段与段之间，自然过渡。有合适的连接词。

8、句与句之间，有恰当的连接词，使之自然成一体。

9、全文中同一个意思，基本没有重复使用某一个词、短语或者句型等，说明这个同学的词汇量不同寻常。老师自然就对该作文有好感了。

10、能够恰当使用谚语、格言等给文章添彩。

二、勤积累，巧准备

要想作文得高分，除了了解以上的特点外，还要在平时的学习中注意一下方面：

1、牢记课标词汇是基础

一篇作文多数是由积极词汇写出来的，这些词汇主要来源于课标。因此，牢记课标词汇是写好作文的基础。

2、掌握课标词汇和短语的用法

要想作文不扣分或者少扣分，有个要求是作文的语病少。怎么能够减少语病呢?这就要求我们在平时的学习过程中反复通过练习，掌握课标词汇和短语等的用法。例如，对于assoonas、stopsomebodyfromdoingsomething、other、another等的用法很多学生就经常出错。

3、高度重视同一个意思的多种表达方式

高分作文有个特点是：让老师发现你拥有丰富的词汇量，你的水平高人一筹。这由何而来?靠我们在平时学习过程中，逐步积累起来的。比如：今年的中考作文，谈的就是帮助他人的问题。同一个意思“帮助”，假如你就用一个动词“help”，岂不显得你词汇贫乏?假如你在作文中不断地变换方式，用help、givesomebodyahand、giveahandtosomebody、beinneedof等以表达“帮助”同一个意思，岂不更好呢?

像这样的例子很多，比如：大家都觉得很简单又很基础的“表示姓名的方式”就有：MynameisJim.I’mJim.I’mcalled/namedJim.I’maboycalled/named/withthenameofJim.等等。

表达年龄的方式有：Sheis12.Sheis12yearsold.Sheisaged12.Sheisagirlof12(yearsold)。Sheisagirlaged12.等等。

很显然，使用高级一点的更好。

4、加强练习，积累经验

学习语言最好的方法是运用，作文也不例外。我们要想作文得高分，必须经常练习，才能提高水平。

5、充分利用作文范文

很多资料书上都有作文范文。诚然，他们有很多值得借鉴的地方。

我们怎么利用它们呢?首先，我们先不要看文章，自己先思考一下：假如你来写，你会怎么去写，会用到哪些词或者句子等。然后去比较，勾出其中的好词佳句，并且把它摘录在专门的作文册子上。供写作时选用。

另外，背一些范文也是很有必要的。

6、背诵一些谚语和警句

作文中如果出现恰当的谚语和警句，会有锦上添花的效果。

三、精心审题，沉着写初稿

很多同学看到作文后，下笔就写。这是不对的。一则很容易写偏题、写出病句，涂改后书面又不整洁，影响得分。

其实，会写作文的同学都知道，审题非常的重要，可以防止很多毛病，提高得分。那么我们审题要做些什么呢?

审题主要要做一下事情：

1、审人称、时态、体裁等

审题时，要求我们要弄清楚这篇文章主要使用的人称是第几人称，什么时态、什么体裁。这些问题解决后至少不会犯很严重的错误：全文皆错。例如，如果一篇文章，本来应该一般过去时，你的每句话却用了一般现在时态。你想想，那还能得高分吗?

2、明确必须表达的要点

高分作文有个特点是要点齐全。如果漏掉一个要点，则要扣分。因此我们必须认真细读其要求，把必须表达的要点勾出来。保证不漏掉任何一个要点。

3、罗列出可能会用到的短语、句型，确定好使用哪个?

4、确定好如何分段

财富，指具有价值的东西就称之为财富，包括自然财富、物质财富、精神财富等。下面是语文迷为大家整理的关于财富的英语名言，希望对你写作文有帮助。

Betrand Russell, British philosopher 乞丐并不羡慕百万富翁，尽管他们一定会羡慕比他们乞讨得多的乞丐。

英国哲学家罗素.B.

He that has a full purse never lacks a friend. Even in a busy market, nobody cares to know a poor person.

Anonymors 富在深山有远亲;贫在闹市无人识。

无名氏

All good things are cheap, all bad things are very dear.

Henry David Thoreau, Ameican writer 一切好的东西都是便宜的，所有坏的东西都是非常贵的。

美国作家梭罗。H.D.

Apply yourself to true riches; it is shameful to depend upon silver and gold for a happy life.

Lrcius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 要争取真正的财富，靠金银谋取幸福是不光彩的。

古罗马哲学家西尼加.L.A.

I would rather have my people laugh at my economies than weep for my extravagance.

Oscar ll, Swedish king 我宁愿让我的人民嘲笑我的的小气也不愿让他们为我的挥霍而哭泣。

瑞典国王奥斯卡二世

A penny saved is a penny gained.

Richard Brckminster Fuller.American srchitect 省下一分钱等于得到一分钱。

美国建筑师富勒.R.B.

Beggars cannot be choosers.

Du Bose Heywood, American writer 乞丐不能挑肥拣瘦。

美国作家海伍德.D.B.

Creditors have better memories than debtors.

Benjamin Franklin. American president 放债的比借债记性好。

美国总统富兰克林。B.

Economy is in itself a source of great revenue.

Lucius Annaeus Seneca, Ancient Roman Philosopher 节约本身就是最大的收入 .

罗马哲学家 西尼加，L.A.

Economy is the poor man s mint; and extravagance the rich man s pitfall. 节约是穷人的造币厂，浪费是富翁的陷阱。

英国作家 塔泊.M

Few rich men own their property.The property owns them.

Robert Green Ingersoll. American Iawyer 极少富人拥有他们的财产，是财产拥有他们。

美国律师英格索尔.R.G.

If you would know the value of money, go and try to borrow some.

Benjamin Franklin, American presudent 要想知道钱的价值，就想办法去借钱试试。

美国总统富兰克林.B.

I finally know what distinguishes man from the other beasts:financial worries.

Jules Renard, French playwright 我终于明白人与野兽的区别在于：人为钱而担忧。

法国剧作家勒纳尔.J.

If rich, it is easy enough to conceal our wealth, but, if poor, it is not so easy to conceal our poverty. We shall find it less difficult to hide a thousand guineas, than one hole in our coat.

Charles C. Colton, British clergyman 如果富有，藏富很容易;如果贫穷，掩饰贫穷却很难。我们不难发现隐藏1000个金币比遮盖衣服上的一个破洞来得容易。

英国画妆师科尔顿.C.C

An ounce of prudence is worth a pound of gold.

Tobias Smollett, British writer 一盎司谨慎抵得上一磅黄金。

英国作家 .斯摩莱特 .T.

All the splendor in the world is not worth a good friend.

Voltaire, French thinker 人世间所有的荣华富贵不如一个好朋友。

法国思想家伏尔泰

关于财富的英语谚语

A bashful dog never fattens.害羞的狗养不胖。(bashful:害羞的)

A beggar can never be bankrupt,乞丐永远不会破产。

A beggar s purse is a I ways empty.乞弓存不住钱。

A borrowed loan should come laughing home.向人借贷应微笑返还。(借钱乐还，再借不难)。 读书笔记

A clear fast is better than a dirty breakfast.宁为清贫，不为法富。 内容来自

A covetous man does nothing that he should till he dies,贪娶之人，死后方尽其义务。

A covetous man is good to none, but worst to himself,贪娶之人，对人无益，对己更损。 读后感

A covetous woman deserves a swindling gallant,贪娶女郎的绝配就是负心汉。

A fool and his money are soon parted,傻子存不了钱。 内容来自

A heavy purse makes a light heart,钱袋沉甸甸，人就轻飘。

A lamb is as dear to a poor man as an ox to the rich,的黑羊比富人的牛更珍贵。

A light purse makes a heavy heart.?中无钱心事重。

A man does not wander far from where his corn is roast i ng.人不会远离财富的来源。 内容来自

A man has no more goods then he has good of.只有享用财富，才算真正拥有财舍田。 读后感

A man may love his house we I I without riding on the ridge.有宝何必人前夸。

A man without money is a bow without an arrow.人无钱，犹如弓无箭。 读后感

A man without money is no man at all. 一分钱难倒英雄汉。

A man’ s wealth is his enemy,财富是人之患也。

会写文章，善于写文章，需要若干条件，其中一个条件就是练好基本功。在基本功的各项练习中，打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，是相当重要的。现在和小编一起来看看小朋友应该如何写句子吧。

打好写作基础，练好写句子的基本功，要从把句子写完整、具体、通顺、连贯这几方面做起。

把句子写完整

怎样的句子才算是完整的呢？读读下面的句子：

1.我们劳动。(谁，干什么)

2.小蚂蚁运送食物。(什么，干什么)

3.哥哥是一名少先队员。(谁，是什么)

不难看出：在一般情况下，句子是由两部分组成的，前半部分交代“谁”或“什么”，后半部分交代“做什么”“怎么样”或者“是什么”。前后两部分说全了，句子才算是一句完整的话。需要强调说明的是：知道什么是完整句，怎样的句子才算完整，这只是一个知识性的问题;落实在行动上，即平日在说每一句话，在写每一句话时，都要认真思考，反复斟酌，提高“完整”意识，不写残缺不全的句子，这才是最重要的。

把句子写具体

句子要完整，这是首要的。但在许多时候，句子只做到“完整”是不能准确表达意思的，还要做到“具体”。怎样的句子才算是具体的呢?读读下面这几组句子，体会一下：

第一组：

1、爸爸做工。

2.爸爸在工厂里做工。

分析：第二句写清了爸爸在哪儿做工。

第二组：

1.小蜜蜂飞来。

2.夏日，一只金色的小蜜蜂从远处嗡嗡地飞来。

分析：第二句写清什么时候，有多少，什么样，从哪儿，怎么样。

由上面这两组句子可以看出：在句子主要成分的前面或后面，写清什么时候(时间)、有多少(数量)、在什么地方或从哪儿(地点)、什么样(形状或颜色)、怎么样(态势)、达到什么程度(情境)等，就写清了事物外形特点、活动特点，就把自己要准确表达的意思写出来了，这就叫做把句子写具体。这样的句子就算是完整、具体的句子。

学习把句子写具体，这是一项极为重要的技能，需要同学们抓住人物或事物的特点，准确运用词语，进行持久练习。

把句子写通顺

句子通顺，就是句意明白，读得顺口。具体来说，句子通顺包括以下几个方面：

1.用词要准确，经得起推敲。例如：我们把门口的泥土消除掉了。句中，“泥土”不能“消除”，只能“清除”掉。

2.句中词语排列的顺序要合理。例如：正在花上，有几只漂亮的蝴蝶翩翩起舞。这句话改成“有几只漂亮的蝴蝶，正在花上翩翩起舞”,句子就通顺了。

3.词语使用搭配要得当。例如：公园里生长着各种树木和五颜六色的鲜花。句中“生长”和“鲜花”两词搭配不当，应改为“公园里生长着各种树木，盛开着五颜六色的鲜花”。

4.句中各词语的意思不能自相矛盾。例如：我断定他大概是王小刚的哥哥。句中“断定”与“大概”矛盾，应删掉“大概”。

5.关联词语的使用恰到好处。例如：只有天下雨，地才会湿。“下雨”不是“地湿”的唯一条件，因此，第一句应改为：只要天下雨，地就会湿。

6.句意明白，合乎实际，符合情理。例如：博物馆里展出了五千多年前新出土的文物。说“五千多年前新出土的文物”不合实际，应改为：博物馆里展出了新出土的五千多年前的文物。

把句子写连贯

连贯，即句子之间连接贯通。显然，把句子写连贯，这是指写几句话(又叫“句群”)来说的。翻开某些同学的作文本，段落中上下句不连贯的现象比比皆是，主要表现在：句子之间无顺序，承接不紧密，跨度大;上下句之间，被描述的对象(即“主语”)重复出现，不会运用“他(她)”或者“它”这些人称代词。怎样才能做到把句子写连贯呢?

1.合理安排顺序，使句子连贯。

有顺序，这是写几句意思连贯的话的最基本的要求。这就要求我们，在写几句话时，一定不能东一句、西一句，想到哪儿就写到哪儿;总要围绕既定的中心意思，按照一定的顺序，把相关的句子组织在一起，使句子前后连贯。

2.学会运用“他(她)”或“它”这些人称代词，使句子连贯。

读读下面这段话，想一想，有什么毛病，怎样说才好：

妈妈的衣袖破了。妈妈赶忙从抽屉里拿出一个小布包。妈妈先从布包里拿出一根针，一根青线，用牙咬了咬线头，把线头穿过针眼。妈妈又从布包里找出一小块布，贴在破了的地方，然后一针一线地缝起来。

读后，大家一定会发现：这几句话写的对象是妈妈，主要写的是妈妈缝补衣服时所作的准备工作，是按事情经过的先后顺序排列的。只是由于这四句话的开头重复出现“妈妈”一词，因此读起来显得很拗口。如果把后面三句开头中的“妈妈”改成“她”字，这几句话就连贯多了。这就告诉我们：在几个句子里，如果写的是同一个人物(或事物)，后面再指这个人物(或事物)时，就可以用“他(她)”或“它”来代替。

[写作基础：学写句子

小编导语：英语作文是英语考试中的一个得分点，那么在写作过程中有什么技巧呢，下面是小编收集整理的相关资料，希望对您有所帮助。

1、首尾呼应，画龙点睛在文章的结尾，把含义较深的话放在末尾，以点明主题，深化主题，起到画龙点睛的效果。如“I Cannot Forget Her” (我忘不了她)的结尾：

After her death， I felt as if something were missing in my life. I was sad over her passing away， but I knew she would not have had any regrets at having given her life for the benefit of the people.

2、重复主题，句结尾回到文章开头阐明的中心思想或主题句上，达到强调的效果。如“I Love My Home Town”(我爱家乡)的结尾：

I love my home town， and I love its people. They too have changed. They are going all out to do more for the good of our motherland.

3、自然结尾随着文章的结束，文章自然而然地结尾。如“Fishing”(钓鱼)的结尾：

I caught as many as twenty fish in two hours， but my brother caught many more. Tired from fishing， we lay down on the river bank， bathing in the sun. We returned home very late.

4、含蓄性的结尾

用比喻或含蓄的手法不直接点明作者的看法，而是让读者自己去领会和思考。如“A Day of Harvesting”(收割的日子)的结尾：

Evening came before we realized it. We put down our sickles and looked at each other. Our clothes were wet with sweat， but on every face there was a smile.

5、用反问结尾

虽然形式是问句，但意义却是肯定的，并具有特别的强调作用，引起读者深思。如“Should We Learn to Do Housework?”(我们要不要学做家务?) 的结尾。

Everyone should learn to do housework. Dont you agree， boys and girls?

6、指明方向，激励读者结尾表示对将来的展望，或期待读者投入行动。如“Lets Go in for Sports”(让我们参加体育运动)的结尾：As we have said above， sports can be of great value. They not only make people live happily but also help people to learn virtues and do their work bettter. A sound mind is in a sound body. Lets go in for sports.

作者对祖母感情的深切、侍奉的殷勤和依附的紧密。勾勒出陈情不仕的一个很重要的画面。

西晋人李密所著，是他写给晋武帝的奏章。当时时局动荡皇帝希望李密能出来做官。因为李密是蜀国人在蜀国又以孝著名，当过官很有名气。所以皇帝希望他能出来做官来服民心。并且希望进一步扩充领土就更加希望天下人以为晋朝清明来进一步取得他国民心。李密孝顺同样也有着浓厚的忠君思想所谓“一朝君主一朝臣”但他为了保全性命就写了这篇表。文章叙述祖母抚育自己的大恩，以及自己应该报养祖母的大义；除了感谢朝廷的知遇之恩以外，又倾诉自己不能从命的苦衷，真情流露，委婉畅达。该文被认定为中国文学史上抒情文的代表作之一，有“读李密《陈情表》不流泪者不孝”的说法。

三国魏元帝（曹奂）景元四年（263年），司马昭灭蜀，李密沦为亡国之臣。司马昭之子司马炎废魏元帝，史称“晋武帝”。泰始三年（267年），朝廷采取怀柔政策，极力笼络蜀汉旧臣，征召李密为太子洗马。李密时年44岁，以晋朝“以孝治天下”为口实，以祖母供养无主为由，上《陈情表》以明志，要求暂缓赴任，上表恳辞。

李密早有孝名，据《晋书》本传记载，李密奉事祖母刘氏“以孝谨闻，刘氏有疾，则涕泣侧息，未尝解衣，饮膳汤药，必先尝后进。”武帝览表，赞叹说:“密不空有名也”。感动之际，因赐奴婢二人，并令郡县供应其祖母膳食，密遂得以终养。

在李密写完这篇表后一年左右的时间，刘氏就去世了。他在家守孝两年后，出仕官职很小，因为当时的政局已相当稳定，晋武帝不需要李密了，便不再重视他。李密做了两年官后辞去职务。

南宋文学家赵与时在其著作《宾退录》中曾引用安子顺的言论：“读诸葛孔明《出师表》而不堕泪者，其人必不忠，读李令伯《陈情表》而不堕泪者，其人必不孝，读韩退之《祭十二郎文》而不堕泪者，其人必不友。”青城山隐士安子顺世通云。此三文遂被并称为抒情佳篇而传诵于世。

总结：这个结论含蕴精警，表面看来它有对武帝的忠敬之心，又有对祖母的孝顺之情，使武帝意识到作者的真情实感一一出自肺腑，句句有理，处处合情。

一、认真审题，切中题意

《中考考试说明》指出，书面表达要切中题意。看到考题后，先不要急于动笔，要仔细看清题目要求的内容，在自己的头脑中构思出一个框架或画面，确定短文的中心思想，不要匆匆下笔，看懂题意，审清格式、体裁、人物关系、故事情节、主体时态、活动时间、地点等。

二、围绕中心，拟定提纲

书面表达评分原则有四条：(1)内容要点;

(2)运用词汇和结构的数量;

(3)运用语法结构和词汇的准确性;(4)上下文的连贯性。

由此可见，要点是给分的一个重要因素。为了防止写作过程中遗漏要点，同学们要充分发挥自己的观察力，把情景中给出的各个要点逐条列出。注意短文字数不要低于或超过规定的字数太多。

三、语言通顺，表达准确

(1)避免使用汉语式英语，尽量使用

自己熟悉的句型。几种句型可交替使用，以避免重复和呆板。

(2)多用简单句型，记事、写人一般都不需要复杂的句型。可适当地使用陈述句、一般疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。不用或少用非谓语或情态动词等较复杂的句型。

(3)注意语法、句法知识的灵活运用。(4)描写人物时，要生动具体，例如：①外表特征：tall，short，fat，thin，strong，weak，ordinary-looking等;②内心境界：

glad，happy，sad，excited，anxious，interested等;③感情描写：love，like，hate，feel，laugh，cry，smile，shout等;④动作描写：come，go，get，have，take，bring，fetch等。

(5)上下文要连贯。上下文的连贯性也是评分的一条原则，同学们应注意下面过渡的用法：①表示并列关系的过渡词：and，aswellas，or等;②表示转折关系的过渡词：but，yet，however等;③表示时间关系的过渡词：first，andthen，

finally，after，before，atlast，atthattime，later，inthepast，immediately，inthe

meanwhile等;④表示空间关系的过渡词：near(to)，far(from)，inthefrontof，beside等;⑤表示比较关系的过渡词：inthesameway，justlike，justas等;⑥表示对照关系的过渡词：but，still，yet，however，ontheotherhand等;⑦表示递进关系的过渡词：also，and，then，too，inaddition，moreover，again等;⑧表示因果关系的过渡词：because，since，then，thus，otherwise，so，therefore，asaresult等;⑨表示解释说明的过渡词：forexample，infact，inthiscase，for，actually等。

四、不会表达，另辟蹊径

中考作文给分是以要点和语言准确度而定，不以文采打分。造句越简单准确越好，造复合句容易出错，容易被扣分，阅卷场上有句话：“错误面前人人平等，文采好不加分。”如遇到个别要点表达不出来或难以表达，可采用变通的办法，化难为易，化繁为简。总之，所造句子要正确、得体、符合英语表达习惯。

五、锦上添花，量力而行

如果你还有时间和精力，想把书面表达写得更好，那么，请注意以下几点：(1)句型多样化，不要i(we)……到底，使人觉得乏味;(2)适当使用一些并列句或主从复合句;(3)进一步描绘人或事物时，适当使用定语从句;(4)适当使用分词或分词短语，烘托谓语动词;(5)偶尔使用一下倒装句，增加新鲜感;(6)适当调换一下状语在句子中的位置，使句子不雷同;(7)上下句子紧接时，其中完全相同的成分可以省略，以节省篇幅。

六、书写工整，卷面整洁

字迹要清晰，让阅卷人看得清楚，不可字迹潦草，难以辨认，要保持卷面的整洁。

七、检查错误

检查错误应从以下几个方面入手：(1)格式是否有错;(2)拼写有无错误;(3)语言是否用错;(4)时态、语态错误;(5)标点错误;(6)人称是否用错。

总之，只要平时同学们多练习写作并有意运用上述方法和技巧，合理分配时间，在中考时一定能写出高质量的作文，得到令人满意的考分。

导语：英语作文在英语试卷中还是相当重要的一部分，你知道写作有哪些技巧吗?下面是yjbys作文网小编为您收集整理的资料，希望对您有所帮助。

初中英语作文分为四等。一等文：13-15分;二等文：9-12分;三等文：5-8分;四等文：0-4分。教给大家十个字，搞定初中英语写作，帮你拿到一等文。

要点+结构+逻辑+语法+亮点

要点：

实际上中考英语写作就等于两个字，翻译!因为中考英语写作一般会给出几个要点，要求必须在文章中有所体现。文章写的再好，只要缺少要点就会扣分。所以要点，也就是文章的第二段内容，要做到全，围绕中心。

结构：

中考最流行的结构就是三段式，深受各地区中考英语写作阅卷老师的喜爱。为什么尼?因为这种结构十分清晰。“观点——要点——总结”让人一目了然。三段式的第一段：简单明了，开门见山，不超过2句话，如，我们想表达小强很强壮，第一段直接说XQis extremely strong。观点明确，这一句足矣。2014年中考英语写作技巧

第二段：分2-3点说为什么他强壮。1. 每天吃10顿饭，He has ten mealseveryday!详举吃的是什么。2. 每天运动2小时，He does exercise 2 hours a day!详举做了什么运动。

第三段：经过第二段的论证，可以得出结论。但请注意，不能完全照抄第一段，要有升华。也可以提出希望和建议等。如，Howstrong and robust XQ is!I hope to be him one day!

逻辑：

这里的逻辑实际指的就是逻辑词。最常用的就是表示递进的，转折的，总结的逻辑词等。递进：除了first，second，third，finally等还可以使用高级点的，如first of all(首先)，in addition，whatsmore，moreover(都是另外的意思)，in a word，all inall(表示总结的)。转折：but，yet，however等。真正有经验的阅卷老师会很注意这些逻辑连接词，因为这些词体现了这个文章的思路。

语法：

其他几点都不是硬性的要求，不那样做不能说是错，只能说是不好，但是语法却是硬性的。如，单词的使用，时态等。

亮点：

当我们将前八个字都做得很完美的时候也只能得到一个二等文的上。要想得到一等文，最后两个字，亮点至关重要。大家设想如果我们是阅卷老师。有两篇写人美丽的作文摆在我们面前，都是结构清晰的三段式，要点都很全，都用了一些逻辑词，都没有语法错误，但是A篇只用了beautiful，good-looking，B篇却用到了attractive，charming，catching等，我坚信正常人都会给B篇高分的。这些高级一点的词汇，词组，句型便是我们得到一等文的最有力的绝招。所以，以后写英语作文要养成一般词汇限量用的好习惯。

英语作文依靠的是同学们的语感和平时的积累，但是在面临中考的紧要关头，要想在短时间内提高英语写作水平不是一件容易的事情，这就需要同学们掌握中考英语作文写作技巧。

“诗者，在心为志，发言为诗”，是人们对美好事物的向往与追求。这是很久前看的一段解释现代诗歌的话，而在《文学理论》一书上对现代诗歌的描述则是：诗歌，是最古老的一种文学体裁。我想，这里“最古老”的定义肯定是广义的，因这指向的诗歌包括古典诗词，和现代诗歌。我们都知道，现代诗歌在我们国家发展只有短短数十年历史。然而就是这短短数十年，现代诗歌突飞猛进，取得了很可以骄傲的成果，其间诞生了许多杰出的现代诗人。

按诗人何三坡在答记者问时的一句话说“中国的现代诗歌，已经进入盛唐时期。”由此可见，现代诗歌在此间快速风靡的人群和热度，也由此可见，现代诗歌日新月异，正以最快速度和最高水平，爬向另一座更高的山峰。

下面我就现代诗歌的写作技巧和手法阐述几点，如果不够水平，还请诗友们多多包涵和支持。

一、语言和意境的运用

我们都知道，现代诗歌有三个明显而具体的要素，它们是：语言，意境和韵律。由此可见语言和意境对一首现代诗歌有多么关键的作用。如果要鉴赏一部现代诗歌的好坏，这两个因素是首先的，必不可少，也是不能忽略的。

语言来自于生活，这一点我们都知道，但任何体裁文章使用的语言，都不是真正在生活里的语言。“艺术来源于生活，更高于生活”，其实这指的也就是任何文学体裁的语言来源于生活，但也“必将高于生活。”

作为一种诗意化的文学体裁，在语言这方面，就更有着不可言说的重要作用和魅力了。一首现代诗歌里，如果语言优雅而别致，就必定有一些嚼头和看头;而如果语言使用不当，就会败坏整个作品的氛围和格调。至于意境，我个人认为也就是能渲染作品和氛围的一些东西，可以是一幅幅打开的画面，由远及近，或由近及远，也可是一种感触或哲思，禅意。也就是说意境的划分大致两类：有形和无形，能看得见的物体和画面，就是有形的意境，还有一种意境是无形，因为并没有那种画面和物体，这种意境存在的只是一种思想，或感悟。

下面，我们通过具体作品，来领略一下语言和意境的魅力。

首先我们来阅读诗人何三坡的诗歌作品《麻雀》

麻雀

雪在大山下降落

房屋蹲在雪地里

屋顶上蹲着炊烟

麻雀们打扮成

秋天的叶子

从树杈上落下来

又顷刻间

回到树上去

短短数语，诗人却已利用优雅的语言和意境，向我们敞开了一幅优美的画面。“雪在大山下降落/房屋蹲在雪地里/屋顶上蹲着炊烟”，在这三句简单诗句里，我们能体会到一种很美的意境，这是一种有形意境，“洁白的雪花，房屋，雪地，炊烟”，几个朴实的物象，在不经意间，已起落有致呈现在读者面前，其实已营造了一种特别雅致的意境和氛围，源自大自然的宁静与圣洁，引人入胜，又令读者浮想联翩。而“从树杈上落下来/又顷刻间/回到树上去”，实际上也算是一种有形兼无形的意境了，在这种无形的意境里，我们不仅看到了麻雀，叶子，树木，还有一种视觉和思想的辽阔，有着不少感悟和思考，严寒下动物们乐观生存，努力向上，对于人类，实际上又是一种巨大的鼓励和感恩。

“麻雀们打扮成/秋天的叶子/从树杈上落下来/又顷刻间回到树上去”，在这里我们还能领略到诗人语句和叙说的优雅，“麻雀们打扮成/秋天的叶子”，几乎没有过多的修饰，而带给读者的却是无比干净和明朗，“从树杈上落下来/又顷刻间回到树上去”，在安静的画面里，突然峰回路转，可爱的麻雀向上飞起，带领读者的视线上升，上升，在不经意间，宁静的画面在动，向上飞翔和超越。短短的诗歌作品也由此获得了巨大成功。在此，我们足以领悟到了语言和意境给作品带来的巨大魅力。

二、韵律和节奏的把握

凡是接触过文学的人，我们都知道韵律的意思。在古典诗词里，韵律的作用十分重要，如果缺少了韵律，或韵律不整，那么古典诗词就不能叫诗词，最好的诗词也会失去看头。

新文化运动后，在早期的现代诗歌里，诗人们对韵律的把握非常周到而细致。在早期现代诗歌作品里，我们经常能读到那些韵律和节奏把握都很巧妙的好作品，这些好作品带给我们的感受，通常是阅读轻快，优美，抑扬顿挫，也或干练，大气，醇厚，回味悠长。这些韵律和节奏的佳作，同时也是最好的朗诵作品。

那么我们再回过来，带着节奏与韵律的品味，来欣赏先哲现代诗人的佳作。

再别康桥(节选)

——作者徐志摩

轻轻的我走了

正如我轻轻的来

我轻轻的招手

作别西天的云彩

那河畔的金柳

是夕阳中的新娘

波光里的艳影

在我的心头荡漾

软泥上的青荇

油油的在水底招摇

在康河的柔波里

我甘心作一条水草

那榆荫下的一潭

不是清泉，是天上虹

揉碎在浮藻间

沉淀着彩虹似的梦

……

全诗共七节，每节四行，每行两顿或三顿，不拘一格而又法度严谨，韵式上严守二、四押韵，抑扬顿挫，朗朗上口。这优美的韵律和节奏在作者把握下，诗人打开的叙说仿佛一湖水美丽的涟漪，带着清凉和透彻，渐渐荡开在读者面前。如果轻轻朗诵起来，就更有一番滋味了，那缓缓打开的美丽而恬静的物象“云彩，金柳，夕阳，新娘，……”，“轻轻的走了，轻轻地来了”，一幅幅春天碧绿的画面映入读者眼中，“在康河的柔波里/我甘心作一条水草”，……真是温暖而心动，惬意而轻快，柔情并美妙，又仿佛一曲曲轻轻的歌儿，回荡在我们耳边。

这也就是很多诗人以为的，现代诗歌，不仅是诗，更是一曲优美的歌儿。纵览诗人的作品，品味其完美的韵律和意境，我们才知道，现代诗歌，有着多么巨大的魅力，令人陶醉。

而在数十年后的今天，现代诗歌翻越了无数个台阶。今天的现代诗歌完全是自由的，充满个性，它们大气，奔放，内敛，开阔，并无忧无虑。也就是说，在今天现代诗歌表达上，众多诗友也许抛弃了诗歌原本该具备的韵律，但节奏仍旧是必不可少的。在某个意义上说，节奏其实就代表了作品的一种气势，也可以说是一种风格，如果节奏把握得巧妙，它将成为诗人们的一种个性，也可能由此诞生各类风格，形成百家争鸣。

三、清新灵动法

我们都知道，诗歌都是由每个细致的句子构成。这里的清新和灵动，指的都是句子的表达和结构。一个句子的构成，有许多种方式，在表达上，一般个人都喜欢用自己惯用的手法和个性来组织语言，有拖沓的，凝练的，清新和雅致的，也有繁琐和啰嗦的，诗歌水平和风格的差异，我想首先就是来源于一个人组织语言能力的差异吧。清新其实只是一种感觉，是清爽和鲜活的组合。如果一个句子的组合或一首诗歌的表达能达到这点，给读者默默间送去清爽和鲜活，又怎能不令读者喜欢和动容?

而灵动，则是指表达中蕴含一种无形的力量和动感，使陈旧的画面鲜活，使静止的物象跳跃，使暗淡的颜色明亮，甚至能令死去的物体重生!由此，我们可见灵动有多么巨大的作用，也由此可见，灵动的“动”实际上就是一种无言的力量。下面我们具体以诗来分析。

冬日阳光

它们翻过墙壁，防盗网

翻过紧闭的玻璃，纱窗

轻轻跳下来

游荡在房间里

多么活泼的一群鱼啊

它们穿金黄衣裳

它们游弋在凛冽的空气里

它们游弋在洁白的地板上

我静静的看着

仿佛寒冷的时光复苏

仿佛那些欢悦的鱼儿，就

游弋在我温暖的心海里

在这首精致而短小的诗歌里，我们能领略到诗歌这种文学体裁带给我们的无比温暖与美好的感觉，浓浓的诗意贯穿其中。这首诗歌最大的特点就是清新和灵动，此外画面感也特别强。在第一节“它们翻过墙壁，防盗网/翻过紧闭的玻璃，纱窗/轻轻跳下来/游荡在房间里”，在这我们看到了作者清新的语言，没有琐碎和繁杂，而“翻过”、“跳下来”、“游荡”等一系列动词又恰到好处，由远及近，引领读者的视线和感官，清清爽爽。

在第二节，更是有一种意蕴的美感和动感，这里的冬日阳光被“默化”成一群群活泼的鱼，“它们穿金黄衣裳/它们游弋在凛冽的空气里/它们游弋在洁白的地板”，阳光本是安静的，甚至有静止之觉，而作者利用巧妙的比喻和叙说，令安静的事物游动，令安静的画面跳跃，由此，则不得不叹息清新和灵动的神奇作用。

而在第三节，作者则又巧妙地升华了动感，将画面的动感继续拉伸，利用灵动的句子，轻轻向上跳动，“我静静的看着/仿佛寒冷的时光复苏/仿佛那些欢悦的鱼儿，就/游弋在我温暖的心海里”，呵呵，阳光普照万物，也普照每个人的心海，“仿佛那些欢悦的鱼儿，就/游弋在我温暖的心海里”，温暖的阳光变成一群金色的鱼，它们温暖而热烈的游进一个人的心房，也游进了读者的心房。如此温和与热烈，如此柔情与细腻，此情此景，又怎能不令人欢欣!

四、拟人法

说到拟人，我们都知怎么回事，而诗歌里的拟人，并不是单纯的比喻，如果是这样，那么诗歌就要丢失原本具备的诗意，语感和意韵。

诗歌中的拟人法，是指将要表达的主题或物象形象的人物化，或借用人物的某些个性的特点来咏物，如果表达恰当，甚至能让虚拟的人和真实的物共成一体，借人咏物，以物喻人，取得的效果，自然不可比拟。

下面我们来看看拟人法的神奇作用

月光

作者：何三坡

你提着裙子从后山上下来

树叶们在晚风中浮起

月光在木门上涌动

呵呵，读何三坡的作品，总有着更多的感动和喜悦。在这短短的三句话里，作者利用寥寥数字，干脆利落，打开了无数美丽的意象，尽管短小，读起来却余香满口，意韵无穷。“你提着裙子从后山上下来”，很明显，这是用的拟人法了，因为月亮不是人类，更不会穿上属于女人的漂亮裙子。

静夜。月圆。树叶晃动。月光洒落在木门上。伫立在夜色里的诗人，看到皎洁的月亮挂在上空，晕黄的月光慢慢挥洒下来，美得令人浮想联翩的月亮，此刻在诗人眼内，不是一个没有温度和情感的物体，而是一个温柔并优雅的女人。“你提着裙子从后山上下来”，什么的样的女人才会有如此的优雅和淡然呢?必定是温尔多情，必定是美到极至。

由此，在诗人笔下，将一轮明月拟人化为一个无比温柔并优雅女人，带着不可言说的华美和宁静;同时，诗人在借人咏物的这一刻，又以物喻人，也就是说，在将月光比喻成的女人，同时又将女人升华成月光的无限境界，这里诗人又默默无声赞叹了天下女人，象月光般皎洁，纯净的女人，正好是艺术的最大升华。

五、素描法

说到素描，我们都知道是怎么回事。就是用铅笔在白纸上画下物体或人像，也可以是抽象的思维。那么，诗歌是用语言组合起来的，又怎么来用笔来绘画呢?

呵呵，写诗时咱们不必借用铅笔，有时候，语言就是最好的铅笔，在我们的手中，利用意境和韵律，咱们可以描绘出一幅幅比铅笔和白纸更加美丽的画面。而且，这些画面里，不只有美丽，粗犷，细腻，或朦胧，还有图画作品所不能及的柔美，感性，优美的意境，诗意，以及打开的哲思，读起来余香满口，回味悠长。

下面，我们在诗歌作品里来感受一下素描法的魅力。

深秋

广袤的大地

湖水搁浅。接近枯黄的草

灌木萧瑟

狗尾草仍在翘首花白的等待

清凉的风涌过来

那些深黄的野菊花

在舞动后

打出轻轻的寒颤

这里作者很明显使用了素描的手法，利用诗歌语言来绘画，极好地打开了一幅深秋的画面。这里我们不仅看到了一幅秋天遍布山野的画面，还读到了这些画面里所有事物的美丽和诗意。“广袤的大地/湖水搁浅。接近枯黄的草”，仿佛是一幅摆放在眼前的画面，背景是广袤的大地，这是远和大的视觉，之后映入眼帘的就是背景里的景物了“湖水搁浅。接近枯黄的草”，仍旧是背景里稍远一些的事物和景象，慢慢的，画面感在拉近：“灌木萧瑟/狗尾草仍在翘首花白的等待”，于是我们看到了低矮的“灌木”，灌木旁有“狗尾草仍在翘首花白的等待”。这就是作者在第一节打开的画面。这个画面里我们还同时领略到了不少大自然真实的颜色：搁浅的湖水，枯黄的草，灌木萧瑟，狗尾草花白的等待。在绘画作品里，作者得花费大量时间和颜料来搭配制作各种颜色，而在诗歌素描作品里，则只需寥寥数语，便可达到画面所具备的大多感官，由此，又不得不再次赞扬文字的奇妙。

在第二节里，我们能看到画面感的升华，以及思想艺术升华。原来作者要表达的不仅是一幅深秋的画面，还有更深刻的对大自然和植物不屈不挠的赞扬。“清凉的风涌过来/那些深黄的野菊花/在舞动后/打出轻轻的寒颤”，“那些深黄的野菊花”应该就是画面中的主体了，在描叙众多暗淡的颜色后，作者最后指向的是一种“深黄色的娇嫩”。在深秋，万物枯涩，河水搁浅，唯有坚强而美丽的野菊花傲立在凛冽的环境里，即使“清凉的风涌过来”，骄傲的野菊花，也仅仅是“舞动后，打出轻轻的寒颤。”如果一个人，在不论遇到多大的困难和挫折时，都能像这无名的野菊花一样骄傲和挺立，无视一切寒风冷雨，那么，这又该是怎样灿烂的人生风景!

六、排比法

感觉这是一个很简单的写作手法。生活里我们经常会用到这个手法。所以也就不再解释排比的结构和意义。咱们具体来谈谈排比在诗歌里的作用，以及排比方法在诗歌语言里获取的力度与深度。

我们都知道一首好的诗歌，不只是语言的诗意和表达的舒缓和清新，还需要一些思想和力度。在黑暗年代，有力度的文学作品同时也是针对现状以及对一种光明和良知的唤醒，比如鲁迅先生就曾留下“与其苟延喘息，不如从容燃烧”的有力名句，也因此而唤醒过千千万万民众。

在和平的年代，咱们自然不必去呼唤光明，但对于生活里千千万万美好，善良，坚强，正义，宽厚而纯朴的人或事物，植物，咱们都可尽情赞扬，并歌颂，哪怕是一滴水，一根草，一缕金色阳光，都蕴含了无比的智慧和感恩，是完全值得我们去歌颂的。而在表达的力度上，排比不失为一个极度蕴含力度的方式。

下面我们来通过海子的诗歌作品来鉴赏排比的魅力。

故乡

作者：海子

在黑夜里为火写诗

在草原上为羊写诗

在北风中为南风写诗

在思念中为你写诗

这首名为故乡的短诗，呈现在读者面前只四个短句，四个排比。然而带给读者的却是不一般的力度和感受。作者运用排比的手法，一点一点由远及近，由模糊到清晰，由抽象到细微，由弱及强，利用朴实的语言，极大打开了一种对故乡热烈的思念之情，同时又借用排比的叙说，热烈歌颂了思念中的故乡无比美好，此外还借用排比表达了诗人对未来美好家园和生活的无比向往。

“在黑夜里为火写诗/在草原上为羊写诗”，两个朴实的排比，却又不失大气和厚重，“在黑夜里为火写诗”，表达了一种思想和情感的热烈，黑夜里原本潜伏了火焰，火焰却又随时能燃烧黑夜，驱除黑暗和寒冷，带给人们无比的热切和希望，这是这首诗歌的起笔，纵观分析可见作者的起笔多么热烈而高亢，却又含义深厚，大气凛然，由此带动读者进入下一个境界，“在草原上为羊写诗”，在诗人这句由高亢到温和与深情的叙说中，无意中多了许多柔情，在诗人的表达中“草原”其实隐喻的是故乡，而“羊”，实际上是离开家乡的每一个游子;或者说这里也蕴含了一个无形的意境“故乡”，诗人虽已离开故乡，而美丽的故乡却又无处不存在于诗人的思维和意识形态中，同时诗人要表达的还有对美好生活的向往和寄托，对美好家园的无比幻想。“在草原上为羊写诗”，实际上诗人要歌颂的还是拥有草原的羊，有着多么巨大的幸福和快乐，而离开了草原，羊儿又会多么孤单和失落，——离开故乡的孤独的游子，有着多么的无助和思念?

“在北风中为南风写诗/在思念中为你写诗”，这两句看似减轻气势的诗句，在一种无比思念和柔情中渐渐结束全诗。“在北风中为南风写诗”，看似不可能的逆向思维，却在前两个排比的随后，并未减轻对故乡的渴望或思念之情的力度，而是利用另一种表白来加大了叙说的力度，这里的“北风”可隐喻成诗人远方的居住地，“南风”则为远方思念的“故乡”，在诗人逆向的风里，不仅有无奈距离的现状，还有游子在远方对故乡深深的渴望之情，以及从不曾减少和削弱的对故乡的热恋，包括对未来家园和美好生活的无比向往，——故乡，远在他乡的诗人，在深深眷恋中无比温柔远望你，“在思念中为你写诗”!

七、隐喻

简单的说，隐喻是一种比喻，用一种事物暗喻另一种事物。然而，隐喻是一种神奇的语言现象，很多时候能触动读者的心弦，带动读者产生意想不到的效果。隐喻大体分三种：无形的隐喻、有形的隐喻、以及有形与无形结合的隐喻。

我们知道，好的诗歌作品，必须具备一些内涵和深度，而隐喻又不失为诗歌体裁中一种能很好打开深度和内涵的一种表达方式之一。

在上一个鉴赏作品海子的《故乡》中，我们其实就欣赏到了隐喻的魅力，那么我们再来通过托马斯的诗歌作品《农村》来领略隐喻的作用。

农村

作者：R.S.托马斯

谈不上街道，房子太少了，

只有一条小道

从唯一的酒店到唯一的铺子，

再不前进，消失在山顶，

山也不高，侵蚀着它的

是多年积累的绿色波涛，

草不断生长，越来越接近

这过去时间的最后据点。

很少发生什么;一条黑狗

在阳光里咬跳蚤就算是

历史大事。倒是有姑娘

挨门走过，她那速度

超过这平淡日子两重尺寸。

那么停住吧，村子，因为围绕着你

慢慢转动着一整个世界，

辽阔而富于意义，不亚于伟大的

柏拉图孤寂心灵的任何构想。

在国外优秀的众多诗人和诗歌作品中，我一向偏爱托马斯和他的作品。作为威尔士二十世纪最强硬，最纯洁，最持久的抒情诗人之一，他多次获得多种诗歌奖项，留下了大量优秀的诗歌作品。

在上面的诗歌作品中，作者多处使用了隐喻。“倒是有姑娘/挨门走过，她那速度/超过这平淡日子两重尺寸”，这里的姑娘隐喻成“时尚”，也同时无形隐喻成美的概念和代名词。

“那么停住吧，村子，因为围绕着你/慢慢转动着一整个世界”，这里诗人将村子隐喻成全世界，带动村子里所有人和物象转动。在这个诗歌作品中，诗人这样的隐喻思维新颖，也奇特，在一瞬间带动读者思想，简单，有力，而又让人不可思议。

八、修辞的节制

“修”，指修饰，“辞”，本意是辩论的言词，后引申为一切的言词。“修辞”是指在表达语言过程中，利用多种语言手段，以尽可能达到更好表达效果的一种语言活动。

我们知道，作为文学体裁的一种，诗歌有着与别的文学体裁不能比拟的细腻与柔情，所以更需要修辞的运用来达到诗意化和个性化。而修辞的巧妙把握和利用又是重要的，如果不使用修辞，那么诗歌必定是不能成诗歌的，而如果修辞泛滥，则诗歌语言难免会繁琐，拖沓，如同浓妆艳抹的女人般粗俗，令人索然无味。

在几年前，我的好朋友落日惊鸿曾送我一句话：“与其下笔如神，不若削字为诗”，细细想来，全是道理。由此可见修辞的节制，又是多么重要，而节制运用修辞，难免又是一门学问了。

下面我们来具体感受一下作品中修辞节制的魅力。

天鹅

作者：何三坡

它们在山间

散步打盹清理翅膀

躲过了世上的尘埃

依旧是何三坡的作品，全诗共计二十一个字。然而却向读者呈现了无比优美画面，“它们在山间/散步打盹清理翅膀”，这样干脆的表达诗意浓厚，思维清晰，蕴含了大自然宁静的景观和乐趣。“躲过了世上的尘埃”，这句诗同时又隐含了诗人要表达的人类心态中另一种潜在状态和境界，也就是心境，并不乏哲思和禅思，这也是主题的深入和升华。整个小诗歌读起来清新而欢快，读后余味深长。

诗人将要蕴含深度和表达的物象，浓缩在短短二十一个字里面，几乎没有一个多余的字眼，而取得的效果，留下的思考，却丝毫不比长篇作品差。由此足见修辞的节制，对一个好的诗歌作品多么重要。

九、返璞归真法

几乎所有人都能理解这个成语的意思。“返璞归真”指回复到其原始的淳朴本真状态。璞，本义是蕴藏有玉的石头。也指未雕琢的玉。这里引申为天真，淳朴的意思。

写了那么多年诗歌，也读了那么多年诗歌，近两年我一直固执认为，自然，真诚，朴实，用心灵吟唱的作品，就是好的诗歌作品。也就是抛开写作手法的雕琢，语句和修辞的华丽，用朴实的句子表达最朴实的感情，那么这样的诗歌作品也就是好作品了。下面我们来读海子的作品《面朝大海，春暖花开》。

面朝大海，春暖花开

作者：海子

从明天起，做一个幸福的人

喂马，劈柴，周游世界

从明天起，关心粮食和蔬菜

我有一所房子，面朝大海，春暖花开

从明天起，和每一个亲人通信

告诉他们我的幸福

那幸福的闪电告诉我的

我将告诉每一个人

给每一条河每一座山取一个温暖的名字

陌生人，我也为你祝福

愿你有一个灿烂的前程

愿你有情人终成眷属

愿你在尘世获得幸福

我也愿面朝大海，春暖花开

都知道这是海子名作，几乎是脍炙人口的佳作了。然而，将这作品仔细阅读和品味下来，我们最大的感受就是质朴，平易近人。整首诗歌里句子朴实，真诚，蕴含了诗人的善良，宽厚，和无比诚实，以及思维里潜伏着的温暖与幸福。这里我们还能看到诗人笔下描述的无比热烈的希望和未来。在这首诗歌作品里，我们找不到诗人刻意雕琢的痕迹或运用的写作手法，整首诗歌没有华丽或刻意的修饰，诗句平实而耐读。

然而它却打动了无数读者的心扉，成为闻名天下的佳作。即使是从未接触过诗歌作品的朋友，在读到这温暖而朴实的叙说后，也会有说不尽的欣喜和感动。“我也愿面朝大海，春暖花开”，这老少皆知的名句里，表达的不仅是以一种希望和期待，还有诗人对未来美好的向往，以及对生命无比美好的劝慰和珍惜。

“陌生人，我也为你祝福/愿你有一个灿烂的前程/愿你有情人终成眷属/愿你在尘世获的幸福”，呵呵，有什么比这更质朴的，还有什么比这更美好的，蓝天祝福白云，阳光祝福大地，春天祝福秋天，我深深地祝福你，陌生的朋友，“愿你有一个灿烂的前程/愿你有情人终成眷属/愿你在尘世获的幸福”!

十、结尾的巧妙处理

一直觉得一首好的诗歌作品，不仅有好的开头，好的主旨，还应该有个漂亮的结尾。这里的漂亮，并不是指华丽的表达或句子结构。而是相对于作者表达的中心和主题，在结尾时利用寥寥数字，或将主题拉到高处，或提出问题，或留下思索，或巧妙解答问题，极大打开主题和空间的深度，给读者留下思考或哲理，余味深长。

巧妙处理诗歌的结尾有什么作用呢?第一，假使一首诗歌作品，在表达上一般，开头或主旨平淡，但一个高高扬起的结尾有时却能弥补诗歌前体和中间的不足，令一般变得雅致，令平庸变得精彩，甚至带给读者峰回路转的感觉;第二，不管诗歌的开头或中间处理如何，结尾仍是重要的，大家都知道“虎头蛇尾”并不是一个好的物象，结尾的把握不当，也甚至就败坏了诗歌之前留下的完美气息，成为一个可遗憾的败笔;第三，我们都知诗歌这个文学体裁潜伏着唯美的格调，而结尾的处理更能带动这种内功格调，不论主题和表达的手法，以及深度，我想，读后能令读者余味无限，回味深长的作品，那么就必定有一定的魅力了;第四，如果是有力度的诗歌作品，语言和主旨把握得当，结尾处理巧妙，那么还能更大限度打开作品表达的力度和深度，令诗歌整体更具说服力，更能征服读者的视觉和感官。

下面我们来读托马斯的作品《时代》。

时代

作者：R.S.托马斯

这样的时代，智者并不沉默，

只是被无尽的嘈杂声

窒息了。于是退避于

那些无人阅读的书。

两位策士的话

得到公众倾听。一位日夜不停地

喊：“买!”另一位更有见地，

他说：“卖，卖掉你们的宁静。”

纵览全诗，作者表达的语言不是很多，然而作者数处运用了隐喻的手法，整体和主题要表达的都是一种讽刺，一种对现实(时代)的尖利的讽刺。而为加大这种讽刺的深度和力度，作者结尾处理的两句，无疑是十分棒的，它甚至是全诗最高的亮点，成为全诗最有力度的精彩之处。以致读者读后，在这种力度的表述里，不得不钦佩作者这有力度的阐述，和对时代，对时代“买卖”的一种憎恨和鄙视。

然而，作者更巧妙之处在于，这么精彩的结尾，竟然不是来自作者自身结构的语言，而是引用两位“策士”的对话：“一位日夜不停地喊：买!/另一位更有见地，他说：卖，卖掉你们的宁静。”这样的引用在一定程度上，极具真实感，因此说服能力也十分强，远比诗人精心结构的语言获得的力度要强得多。因而读者在读完这个短诗后，感官会暂时停留在这有力地引用对白里，思维会不自觉被诗人带动，留下各种思索。

图画作文是近年大学英语四级写作中出现频率较高的一类文体,考生要特别加以重视。众所周知，题目所给出的图画必然反映了一定的社会现实或者揭露出某种社会现象。相比其他的文体而言，这类作文难度较大，既要求考生通过文字形式分析出图画内容，又要将图中所包含的的思想内容准确地表达出来。为此，应届毕业生网就此类作文写作步骤予以如下几方面的指导和点拨。

一、审题立意

四级作文写作过程中最关键的步骤就是审题，不仔细审题就会很容易使作文跑题，因此这是必不可少的第一步。此步骤要注意两点：一是分析题目和图画，确定文章的命题类型，抓住中心思想，联想此作文要求的写作主题。二是进一步确定给定的题材及此作文要考查的重点内容。也就是说，通过审题，考生要对作文谈论的主要话题心中有数。

二、组织结构

审题之后，根据分析的结果草拟提纲并组织安排段落，确定文章的整体结构。一般而言，考生可将图画作文转化为三段式提纲作文。开始段描述图画内容；中间段解释图画所反映出来的深层意义；结尾段引出结论，总结全文。各段的主题句要条理清晰，以使自己要表达的内容有更好的把握。每段的重点都应集中于描述图画规定的内容。选用的词句应紧扣图画主题、突出重点、前后连贯、表达清楚。

三、检查修改

考试过程中，很多考生由于紧张、仓促等原因，很容易犯一些简单的错误。因此，最后留出几分钟时间来修改所写内容是很有必要的。然而，切忌大幅度地对作文惊醒修改，因为这样会破坏卷面整洁，影响阅卷老师对试卷的印象。修改时可以从两点着手：

语法方面。包括时态是正确、名词单复数是否对应、被动主动语态是否正确、主谓是否一致等。

词汇方面。包括连接上下句或段落的关联词、固定搭配、及物不及物动词的使用、习惯用语是否使用正确等。同时，单词拼写错误和标点误用都是扣分点，考生应尽量避免此类错误。

综上所述，四级写作需要遵循上述步骤，即审题立意、组织结构、检查修改。祝考生顺利通关！

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1. What is language for? Some people seem to think its for practicing grammar rules and learning lists of words--- the longer the words the better. Thats wrong. Language is for the exchange of ideas, for communication。

语言到底是用来干什么的呢?一些人认为它是用来操练语法规则和学习一大堆单词--而且单词越长越好。这个想法是错误的。语言是用来交换思想，进行交流沟通的!

2. The way to learn a language is to practice speaking it as often as possible。

学习一门语言的方法就是要尽量多地练习说。

3. A great man once said it is necessary to drill as much as possible, and the more you apply it in real situations, the more natural it will become。

一位伟人曾说，反复操练是非常必要的，你越多的将所学到的东西运用到实际生活中，他们就变的越自然。

4. Learning any language takes a lot of effort. But dont give up。

学习任何语言都是需要花费很多努力，但不要放弃。

5. Relax! Be patient and enjoy yourself. Learning foreign languages should be fun。

放松点!要有耐性，并让自己快乐!学习外语应该是乐趣无穷的。

6. Rome wasnt built in a day. Work harder and practice more. Your hard- work will be rewarded by god one day. God is equal to everyone!

冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。更加努力的学习，更加勤奋的操练，你所付出的一切将会得到上帝的报答，上帝是公平的。

7. Use a dictionary and grammar guide constantly. Keep a small English dictionary with you at all time. When you see a new word, look it up. Think about the word-- use it, in your mind, in a sentence。

经常使用字典和语法指南。随身携带一本小英文字典，当你看到一个新字时就去查阅它，想想这个字---然后去用它，在你的心中，在一个句子里。

8. Try to think in English whenever possible. When you see something think of the English word of it; then think about the word in a sentence。

一有机会就努力去用英文来思考。看到某事时，想想它的英文单词;然后把它用到一个句子中去。

9. Practice tenses as much as possible. When you learn a new verb, learn its various forms。

尽可能多的操练时态。学习一个动词的时候，要学习它的各种形态。

10. I would also like to learn more about the culture behind the language. When you understand the cultural background, you can better use the language。

我想学习和了解更多关于语言背后的文化知识，当你理解了文化背景，你就能更好地运用语言。

With time goes by， it becomes a bit hard for me to remember everything about myself at the first day of my college life。 However， there was one thing for sure that I did feel quite excited and curious about my university。 There is no doubt that students like me have struggled for a long time so that can be permitted to enter the university。

随着时间的流逝，记得在我的第一天大学生活对我来说变得有点困难了。然而，有一点是肯定的，我对大学真的感到很兴奋很好奇。毫无疑问，很多像我这样努力了很长时间才可以进入大学的学生。

1. To cherish the enviroment is to love ourselves.

爱护环境就是爱护我们自己。

2.Water is the source of ourlives

水是生命之源。

3.I make an urgent appeal that measures should be taken to cope with the situation

我急切呼吁应该采取措施改变现状。

4.Our government is doing its best to take measures to fight against pollution.

我们政府正努力制定措施与污染作斗争。

5.We are sure that well win the battle.

我们坚信我们能赢得战斗。

6.Its high time that we should protect our enviroment from being polluted.

是时候我们应该防止环境污染了。

7. Keep our mountains green，the wate clean，and the sky blue.

使我们山更绿，水更清，天更蓝。

8.However，natural resources are not inexhaustible.some reserves are already on the brink of exhaustion.

然而自然资源并不是无穷无尽的，一些储量已经到了穷尽的边缘。

9.If we do something with no thought for the furture . The later generation would be in danger.

如果我们不为将来考虑，后代就会受到威胁。

10.Our earths days are numbered without urgent help.

没有及时的帮助我们的地球就屈指可数了。

11(Sth.)are bound to generate severe consequences if we keep turning a blink eye to them.

如果我们继续睁一只眼闭一只眼的话，……一定会有恶劣的后果。

一、函的概念 函是不相隶属机关之间相互洽工作、询问和答复问题，或者向有关主管部门请求批准事项时所使用的公文。

函作为公文中惟一的一种平行文种，其适用的范围相当广泛。在行文方向上，不仅可以在平行机关之间行文，而且可以在不相隶属的机关之间行文，其中包括上级机关或者下级机关行文。在适用的内容方面，它除了主要用于不相隶属机关相互洽工作、询问和答复问题外，也可以向有关主管部门请求批准事项，向上级机关询问具体事项、请示较小事宜，还可以用于上级机关答复下级机关的询问或请求批准事项，以及上级机关催办下级机关有关事宜，如要求下级机关函报报表、材料、统计数字等。通知一般事项，如通知召开一般性会议。此外，函有时还可用于上级机关对某件原发文件作较小的补充或更正。不过这种情况并不多见。

二、函的特点

(一)沟通性。函对于不相隶属机关之间相互洽工作、询问和答复问题，起着沟通作用，充分显示平行文种的功能，这是其他公文所不具备的特点。

(二)灵活性。表现在两个方面：一是行文关系灵活。函是平行公文，但是它除了平行行文外，还可以向上行文或向下行文，没有其他文种那样严格的特殊行文关系的限制。二是格式灵活，除了国家高级机关的主要函必须按

照公文的格式、行文要求行文外，其他一般函，比较灵活自便，也可以按照公文的格式及行文要求办。可以有文头版，也可以没有文头版，不编发文字号，甚至可以不拟标题。

(三)单一性。函的主体内容应该具备单一性的特点，一份函只宜写一件事项。

三、函的分类。

(一)按性质分，可以分为公函和便函两种。公函用于机关单位正式的公务活动往来;便函则用于日常事务性工作的处理。便函不属于正式公文，没有公文格式要求，甚至可以不要标题，不用发文字号，只需要在尾部署上机关单位名称、成文时间并加盖公章即可。

(二)按发文目的分。函可以分为发函和复函两种。发函即主动提出了公事事项所发出的函。复函则是为回复对方所发出的函。

(三)另外，从内容和用途上，还可以分为洽事宜函，通知事宜函，催办事宜函，邀请函、请示答复事宜函，转办函，催办函，报送材料函等等。

四、函的结构、内容和写法

由于函的类别较多，从制作格式到内容表述均有一定灵活机动性。主要介绍规范性公函的结构、内容和写法。

公函由首部、正文和尾部三部分组成。其各部分的格式、内容和写法要求如下：

(一)首部。主要包括标题、主送机关两个项目内容。

1、标题。

2、主送机关。

(二)正文。其结构一般由开头、主体、结尾、结语等部分组成。

(三)结尾。一般用礼貌性语言向对方提出希望。或请对方协助解决某一问题，或请对方及时复函，或请对方提出意见或请主管部门批准等。

(四)结语。通常应根据函询、函告、函或函复的事项，选择运用不同的结束语。如“特此函询()”、“请即复函”、“特此函告”、“特此函复”等。有的函也可以不用结束语，如属便函，可以像普通信件一样，使用“此致”、“敬礼”。

(五)结尾落款。一般包括署名和成文时间两项内容。

署名机关单位名称，写明成文时间年、月、日;并加盖公章。

五、撰写函件应注意的问题

函的写作，首先要注意行文简洁明确，用语把握分寸。无论是平行机关或者是不相隶属的行文，都要注意语气平和有礼，不要倚势压人或强人所难，也不必逢迎恭维、曲意客套。至于复函，则要注意行文的针对性，答复的明确性。

其次，函也有时效性的问题，特别是复函更应该迅速、及时。像对待其他公文一样，及时处理函件，以保证公务等活动的正常进行。

例文 通知事宜函

国务院办公厅关于羊毛产销和质量等问题的函

国家计委、经贸办、农业部、业部、经贸部、纺织部、技术监督局： 为进一步发展我国羊毛生产，搞活羊毛流通，提高羊毛质量，根据国务院领导同志的批示，现就有关问题通知如下：

一、要切实抓紧抓好草场改造和羊种改良工作。(略)

二、技术监督局要加强羊毛的质量监督和检验工作。(略)

三、要尽快组织直接进入国际羊毛拍卖市场。(略)

四、为了促进国内养羊业的发展，支持纺织工业生产和扩大出口创汇。(略) 上述有关政策，请有关部门、各地区特别是羊毛生产区认真研究落实，执行中的问题，由国家计委和经贸办协调，并督促落实。

国务院办公厅(盖章)

电影，作为一种大众艺术，以真生动的直观性和逼近生活的真实感而易有广泛颀赏性。一部优秀的影片能使人得到美的享受和精神上的陶冶。许多同学在观看影片后常会有感而发，尝试写作影评，这对于提高我们的影视鉴赏能力，端正我们的审美观念有相当大的帮助。那么，影评写作基础知识有哪些呢？

影评，是文艺评论的一种，是对各种电影现象进行分析和评价的文章。它主要是对蕴藏在电影艺术中的审美价值、认识价值及其思想意义的揭示、开掘，是对电影艺术创作规律的探索，并从中找出成功的经验、失贩的教训。所以，好的影评，一方面可为电影的友展和质量的提高提供反馈信息，一方面又能帮助观众正确理解电影，培养和提高观众的艺术欣赏能力和健康的艺术情趣。

写影评，应该把握好这样几点：捕捉住感受点。一部电影涉及的方面很广，需要品评的着笔点很多。这就需要对电影反复回味思考，用心灵再度感受，把握往影片中最能动人的地方，并使之在自己的笔下得到理性的升华。如观看了《泰坦尼克号》，不能只简单地叙述这场爱情故事，而要从主人公生与死的考验中感悟到人性的光芒。

立意要新，开掘要深。写影评要有新意，要有独到的见解，抓往要点，自感而发。要做到有新意，一是要抓住影片内容，结合台社会现买；二是要准确把握住影片的精神实质，挖掘影片本身所包含的深刻内涵。例如对张艺谋电影的分析要紧扣住时代背景，但也不必要都从思想意义角度分析，如巩俐在张艺谋电影中的形象塑造，张艺谋电影中的男性形象等，都是可以开掘的领域。

要实事实是地分析评价。鲁迅先生说过：评论作品"必须坏处说坏，好处说好"，还要"知入论世"。他说"倘若论文，最好的是顾及全篇，非目顾及作者全人，以及他所处的社会状况，这有较为确凿。"对影片作实事来是的评价，要求我们用全面的观点，不是顾其一点，而是观照全片。顾及编导的意图、表演的全部以及当时的社会环境、历史背景等等，作恰如其分的分析与评价。不能强导演、演员、片中人物所难，求全责备。同的，我们在写影评时，也不能人云亦云，如评电影《花季，雨季》时，在一片叫好声中，有同学冷静地认为编导将银幕中的学生形象给拔高了，就很有思考。

要重视影片的艺术分析。电影是通过艺术手段来表现主题、塑造人物、抒发感情的，所以影评要重视对影片艺术的高下进行分析。这种分析应具体详细，由表及里，言之有物；评价则应观点鲜明，实事求是。在艺术评析中，字里行间渗透出电影意识，尽可能恰当地运用电影艺术名词术语，还需要有对电影艺术的深刻感受与理性把握。这可以通过阅读电影理论书籍和多欣赏优秀影片来解决。每年的美国奥斯卡电影大奖评选，世界各国的影展都给我们提供了这样的机会，虽不能亲临其境，但通过多种媒体一样能了解动态，捕捉到世界电影发展的最新信息。

影评写作可以有长有短，可着眼于一部影片的一个镜头，也可以着眼于一种电影现象。对于我们师范生来说，要对一部影片作出全面的评价比较困难，练习写影评，可从评论一个人物形象、一个情节、一个场面入手，可对演员演技。拍摄技巧、导演意图、影片风格、色彩、语言、音乐等进行单一的评析。随着写影评水平的提高，就可对某一人物形象，如影片中的学生、教师、军人等银幕形象发表看法，也可以从纵向谈某一阶段电影的回顾或某一体裁电影的回顾，分析其得失；或从横向谈某一风格的电影，如西部电影、贺岁片、娱乐片等，或横纵向结合，谈一个导演的风格，如谢晋模式、张艺谋现象等到。初涉影评写作不宜贪大求全，而应从一点一滴写起，思考挖掘，连缀成篇。

开始练习写作影评时还应该注意：语言要朴实，要个性化。写影评一定要讲真话，讲自己的话，不要抄袭别人的评论。唯独自己的感受和朴实的语言，才会使自己的评论富有个性和新意，也才会给读者带来清新的感受。

叙议要结合，突出评论。电影最直观可感的，影评离不开叙事。但切忌过多地叙述故事，要突出分析写评价。当然，所评所析不得脱离影片孤立地进行。

设计好影评的标题至关重要。一般来说，它由正副标题构成。正题——揭示文章的中心，必须简明扼要，而又耐人寻味，能够引起读者的阅读兴趣，同时也能给读者带来审美愉悦，它是贯穿全文的主线；副题——点明评论对象，交待片名或评论角度，它是正题必要的补充。二者相得益彰，能使文章增色不少。如：《历史和时代的搏击者——评银幕上的共产党员形象》，《悲剧在红色中渗透——评电影＜红高梁＞＝。

我们在写影评的过程中，要不断总结学习他人的写作经验，丰富自己的写作实践，在日积月累的基础上，通过影评的写作，不断促进我们知识结何的完善，提高我们的颀赏水平和审美能力。

今天，工作和生活中处处需要写作，各行各业都要学习写作。美国社会预测学家约翰?奈斯比特指出：当代社会应该记住最重要的大事有五件，其中之一是“在这个文字密集社会里，我们比以往更需要具备基本的读写技巧。”(约赖?奈斯比特：《大趋势》第18页，梅艳译,中国社会科学出版社1984年第1版)不仅信息传递、思想交流需要写作，而且学习也需要写作。因为写作的过程，同时也是巩固和深入学习的过程。

写作可分为两大类：一是文学创作，又称艺术协作，是指语言艺术中的诗歌、散文、小说、剧本等文学作品的创作;二是实用写作，又称应用文写作，指党政机关、社会团体、各行各业、企事业单位和人民群众在处理公务和日常生活、交往中产生的社会性认识和书写实践活动。

一、应用文产生发展

应用文有它产生、发展的过程。应用文在我国已有3000多年的历史，我国最早的文字甲骨文，就其内容和形式来看，是原始应用文的雏形。随着社会经济的发展和国家的产生，除了民间的应用文日益丰富外，国家机关等适应公务需要的应用文发展更快。例如，周代的《尚书》文告，秦代的制诏谕奏，汉代的表疏律令，魏晋的简牍署书，唐宋的图籍表册，明清的史册文翰都是应用文。此外，书信、书契、碑碣志铭、法律条例等也是应用文。在我国应用文发展的历史上，在长期的写作实践中，曾经产生了不少优秀作品，如李斯的《谏逐客书》、司马迁的《报任少卿书》、贾谊的《论积贮疏》、诸葛亮的《出师表》、魏征的《谏太宗十思疏》、王安石的《答司马谏议书》等，都是千古名篇。对于应用文的研究，我们也有传统，刘勰的《文心雕龙》文体论部分20篇。其中12篇谈到应用文。1911年辛亥革命后，南京临时政府颁布了一个公文程式条例，专门规定了公文名称和使用范围，废除了几千年封建王朝使用的制、诏、诰、刺、题、奏、表、笺等名目，表现了革命党人反对封建专制的思想，也是公文制度上的一次重大改革。1928年国民党中央政府对公文程式又作了一些新规定，其中比较重要的一点是规定公文的写作要用白话文，使用新式标点符号。中国共产党成立后，从建立自己的机关开始，就相应地有了自己的公文。1942年，陕甘宁边区政府颁布了《陕甘宁边区新公文程式》，为以后文书工作的健全和发展奠定了基础。中华人民共和国成立后，中国共产党和中央人民政府对公文工作十分重视，进行了一系列改革和健全工作，1951年中央人民政府政务院颁布了《公文处理暂行办法》，1995年中共中央批准了《中国共产党中央和省(市)级机关文书处理工作和档案工作暂行条例》，1957年国务院印发了《关于公文名称和体式问题的几点意见(稿)》，1981年国务院办公厅发布了《国家行政机关公文处理暂行办法》，1987年国务院办公厅又发布了《国家行政机关公文处理办法》，1993年11月21日国务院办公厅对这个办法作了修订，重新发布，自1994年1月1日起施行。这些对于提高机关公文质量和公文管理水平起了重要作用。随着我国经济的发展和对外交往的日益频繁，应用文的种类也越来越多，新的文种不断涌现。

二、应用文写作的作用

1、公关交际的作用

在当前的社会活动中，任何人、任何单位都免不了与外界接触、打交道。比如开业，要向工商管理局申请执照;双方合作，需要签订协议合同;销售产品，要策划广告，发函等等，都需要用应用文联系，以此来促进业务的开展，协调各方的联系。应用文表达清晰、准确，无疑会给企业树立良好的形象，促进企业的发展。

2、宣传教育作用

党和政府通过应用文下达各种文件、法规、制度，向全国宣传党和国家的方针政策，各地区、各部门、各企业也通过应用文推广先进经验，表扬先进人物，批评揭露不良现象，丑陋行为，制裁不法分子，以此来提高人们的思想政治觉悟，规范人们的行为，保障社会的安定，推动各项事业的健康发展。

3、沟通联系的作用

应用文是加强上下级联系的纽带，也是与各有关方面联系的有效工具。比如上下级之间的上情下达，下情上报;各单位之间的信息交流、经验交流，以此取人之长，补己之短，互相促进，共同提高，推动社会主义现代化的建设等。

4、凭证资料作用

在社会生活中，应用文也是开展工作，解决、处理问题的依据和凭证。向上级下达的文件、党和政府颁布的法规、有关方面的规章制度，都可作为开展工作和检查工作的依据;而一些条据、合同文本、公证材料等，也是业务中的凭证，一旦出现问题、纠纷，依靠这些凭证，可通过法律追究对方责任，维护自身利益。另外，一些重要的应用文也是历史档案资料，要了解某一时期的政治、经济情况，或某一方面的生产经营情况，只要查阅当时存档的应用文，就可以知道。有些冤假错案在事后也能凭借这些档案的应用文得以澄清事实，还其本来面目。

三、应用文写作的特点

应用文作为一种文体与其他文学作品的写法相比较，除具有一定的共性外，还有其独特的个性。一般来说，从小学到中学，学生写的大都是记叙文、议论文等文体，讲究语言的生动形象、情节起伏，采用多种描写手法，进行多样的抒情等。但这些作文的写法，不能套用到应用文的写作中去。一个学生平时作文写得很好，应用文不一定能写好，这就需要了解掌握应用文写作的特点，才能写好应用文。应用文写作的特点主要有以下几种：

1、实用性

应用文最大的特点在于“实用”，“实用”是应用文与其他文学作品的主要区别之一。一般文学作平的创作是“有感而发”，诗歌、散文、小说等文学作品主要是表达人们的喜怒哀乐、抒发理想、反映现实。而应用文的写作主要是为了解决实际问题，是“有事而发”，无事不发。比如要和远方的朋友联系，就要写信;要借款，就得立字据;向上级汇报工作、反映情况，要写报告;推销产品，要写广告等，都是为了解决实际问题而写的，所以应用文往往被人称为实用文，是“为实用而作之文”.

2、针对性

应用文的写作都有明确、直接的对象。比如信写给谁?字据里给谁?报告打给谁?都有对象，即使是一些广告、启事也是针对有关消费者、知情者的，只不过对象的范围大一些。而文学作平的阅读对象往往是不明确，没有严格的针对性，像一首诗、一篇小说、一部电影剧本，谁多可以看，谁多可以不看，老少不分，雅俗共赏。

3、时效性

由于应用文是为了解决实际问题而写的，所以它的时间性很强。一旦出现问题，就必须及时反映，否则拖延时间就会给生活、工作、生产带来影响。尤其是当今社会，市场竞争激烈，信息传递慢，企业随时有被淘汰的危险。而信息反映及时，就会给企业带来效益。相对而言，文学作品的写作时间性不强，像《红楼梦》写了十年之久，欧阳修的《醉翁亭记》写好后又搁置了很长时间才发表。

4、真实性

应用文写作必须讲究真实、各观，实事求是地反映问题，反映情况，不允许向文学创作那样，可以虚构，进行艺术再加工，“杂取种种、合成一个”，追求艺术的阵;也不能发挥主观想象、夸大其辞，否则就会歪曲事实真相，蒙骗对方，误导消费者，给社会带来不良影响。

5、程式性

指应用文的写作有其特定、惯用的格式，这些格式，有的是长期以来约定俗成、相沿成习的，有的是由国家、有关部门统一制定的。如书信有书信的格式，公文有公文的格式，经济合同有经济合同的格式等，每一种应用文包括哪些内容，那些在前，那些在后，分几部分，都应严格遵守，不得随意标新立异，也不能像有些文学创作那样，随意编排，自由联想，打破时空观，讲究情节情节的曲折变化等。应用文的格式也不是一成不变的，随着社会的发展，人们生活习惯的变化，观念的变化，应用文写作格式也会变化，使它更加方便人们表情达意的需要，更加顺应社会发展的需要

6、平实性

由于应用文注重实用，所以它的语言也讲究务实，就是语言要简洁、朴实、明白、准确、规范，便于理解执行。不能像文学创作那样讲究生动、形象、含蓄、朦胧，或以取悦打动读者。平实是应用文写作的基本风格。

四、应用文写作的基础知识

(一)材料

材料是构成文章的要素之一，是大家在日常生活中按收集到的，以准备写作用的有意义、有价值的资料。材料是形成主题的基础，又是表现主题的支柱。一篇文章的内容如何，首先取决于作者掌握材料的多少和好坏。常言道：“巧妇难为无米之炊”，就说明了这个道理。所以，写作前必须大量地积累材料。

1、积累材料

(1)认真观察生活

生活中存在着大量材料，能否被你所用，关键在于你能否自觉地认真地进行观察，将材料日积月累起来。观察和做一切事情一样，必须注意方法。总的说来，观察要确立观察点，要有顺序，要抓住事物特征。要具备分析、综合能力。此外，观察要善于思考才能发现问题，提出问题，抓住事物的主要特征，从而对事物进行科学的判断。

(2)深入调查采访

为了反映社会建设中新事物、新经验、新问题，就必须有目的、有计划地进行调查采访，广泛收集材料。这也是写作前的重要准备工作。常用的调查方法有：有条件的话开调查会，个别采访，实地考察，问卷考察，参加有关会议，阅读有关文件等。

(3)围绕业务进行收集

围绕本单位和本人的业务工作，有意识的收集资料，可以为我们写作提供丰富的材料。一般说来，必须收集的材料有：党和国家各个时期的经济方针、政策和财经纪律、制度;本单位的基本情况，有关业务资料，像会计核算、统计与计划指标以及完成情况所提供的有关数字资料、经济活动分析缝隙材料等;有关同类单位的对比资料;其他有关情况。

(4)建立材料仓库

为了把占有的材料很好地贮存起来，避免遗忘，每个写作者都必须建立起自己的材料仓库。主要方法有：坚持写笔记，这笔记可根据材料的特点采用不同的形式，如事态速写，把生活中突然发生的有意义的事情粗线条地记下来;一事一议，针对所见所闻的某一事情，写自己的感想认识;读书摘要，摘抄书报、文件中各种事例或文笔精华;提要缩写，根据文章内容的主次，采用概括和综合的方法记下主题、要点;编列索引，把每一份原始材料的题目，按一定的类别，按一定顺序记下来;做资料卡，一张卡片记一件事、一个例子、一个人或一个问题，写上编号，注明出处。

2、选择材料

选择材料从根本上说就是根据表现主题的需要来决定对材料的取舍。所以选择材料的总原则是，什么样的主题就选用什么样的材料。

那么，选择材料有什么具体要求呢?

一要“真”。选择那些真实的，足以令人信服的材料。因为，伪饰虚假的材料最终将导致读者对文章甚至作者的厌恶，真实的材料合情合理合乎逻辑，文章使用这样的材料才会有力量。

二要“精”。选择那些质地精美，能以一当十的材料。因为，只有这些能深刻地揭示事物本质具有广泛代表性的材料，能以少胜多，以小显大，文章使用这样的材料，就很精当。

三要“新”。选择那些有新鲜感，具有吸引力的材料。因为，这种清新的材料，具有时代的气息，能引起读者的兴趣——抓住读者的心。

3、使用材料

选择材料之后，还有个如何使用的问题，使用得好，就可以有力地表现主题，使用不好，也会相应地削弱主题。材料的使用要掌握一个原则，即集中、强烈。材料的使用重在一个“活”字，材料吃得透，运用就灵活，笔下功夫深，材料就活脱。

如何具体使用材料?

一调动，指的是材料先后顺序的确定，使材料之间依次排列，形成一定的逻辑关系。二平衡，指材料的详略、轻重的处理，一般行文的详略是从全文着眼，求得内容整体与各个局部之间文字量上的统一和协调。三匀称，材料文字量的相对齐整，在文章形式上能给读者一种对称、均匀的美感。

(二)主 题

主题是文章的灵魂，写文章都是为了表达一定的主题。

不论是谁，他只要动笔写作，总会有个“意图”、“宗旨”、“目的”的。或者是为了宣传某一种思想，或是为了表彰某一个人物，或是为了介绍某一桩事情，或是为了传播某一项经验……总之，他要说明点什么意思，表达点什么想法，反映点什么意见，灌输点什么主张。而这“意思”、“想法”、“意见”、“主张”等等，就表示着作者对生活的理解，对事物的认识。表示着作者赞成什么，反对什么的鲜明倾向。这些，就是文章的“主题”了。

因此，主题就是作者在说明问题，发表主张或反映生活现象时，通过全部文章内容所表达来的基本的意见或中心思想。

1、主题的提炼

提炼文章的主题，要求做到正确、鲜明、深刻、新颖。所说的正确，就是内容要反映客观实际，符合党和国家的路线、方针、政策。所谓鲜明，就是赞扬什么，反对什么，旗帜鲜明。

2、主题的表现

正确、鲜明、深刻、新颖的主题，如果表现得好，可以增色;如果表现不力，也是要逊色的。

如果说提炼主题不易的话，那么表现好主题就更难。它需要我们掌握适宜的表现手法。

应用性文章是为办理事情、解决问题而写的，贵在务实，利于行动。作者必须针对工作或生活中的实际问题，在文章中表明自己对某件事的态度或解决某个问题的意见等，因此，应用文的观点是由作者直接表达出来显露在文章中，就这一点，应用文与论说文有相似之处。

(三)结 构

结构即文章的内部构造，是如何运用材料以表现主题的组织安排。它是作者的思路在文章中的反映，实质是一个如何认识和反映客观事物的问题。如果把主题比作文章的灵魂，材料比作文章的血肉，那么结构就是文章的骨架。

文章的结构，包括两个方面：表现为思维形式的叫做逻辑结构，表现为语言形式的叫篇章结构。写作者一般先形成逻辑结构，再形成篇章结构;阅读者一般先了解篇章结构，然后理清逻辑结构。多写多看文章以后，两者也可同时形成或理解。

常见的结构形式：

第一，按照事物产生、发展、变化的过程或时间先后顺序去写，即纵式结构。这种写法，能形象地再现事物的原貌，可读性较强。第二，根据内容的特点和矛盾的不同性质，也就是按事物的逻辑关系进行分类归纳，把主体分成几个部分(或几个方面)，然后把材料横着排列起来，逐个进行阐述，最后从总的方面集中说明一个中心思想，即横式结构，这种写法，便于抓住要害，突出主要矛盾，文章的观点鲜明，为应用文所广泛使用。

(四)语 言

语言是人类用来表达意思、交流思想的工具。

在文章的写作中，一方面，语言是文章思想内容的具体表现，构成文章最基本的材料就是语言，没有语言就没有任何文章;另一方面，文章以语言作为表情达意的工具，没有好的语言，任何好思想、好材料、好结构都无法表现，要把语言运用好，必须做到准确无误，意明笔畅，简洁精练，朴素通俗。

(五)表 达

写作的表达方式是多种多样的，主要有叙述、描写、抒情、说明、议论。这五种表达方式各具特点。它们在写作中，有的单独使用，有的交互使用，更多的是交互混合使用。

应用文写作中常用的表达方式，主要是叙述、说明、议论。

1、叙述

应用文的叙述，要求写作者有一个立足点和观察点。要么从自我出发，要么就是从与叙述对象的平行地位出发，所以叙述时要确定人称。

应用文的叙述，也与一般文章相同，分为顺叙、倒叙、插叙、补叙。

2、说明

说明是对事物、事理和人物所作的具体或概括的介绍或解说。

常用的说明方式有：定义、诠释说明，用概括、精确的语言表述事物的本质属性，使它与别的事物相区别，这就叫下定义又称立界说。下定义比较困难，有时就只说明对象的某些特点，这叫诠释释或解释，使用较自由灵活。

概貌说明，是对说明对象从外观上进行概括的介绍。这种说明注重事物的完整性，给人一个总体的印象。

程序说明，是对说明的对象从制作过程或工艺流程乃至施工进度的解说。这种说明要注意程序之间的衔接和贯通。

局部说明，是对完整事物的划段解说，这种说明需要划段准确，各阶段解说的事理要具有一致性。

举例说明，是一种通过举例的方法解说事物的写法。这种说明应注意所举实例与解说对象的相似点。

比较说明，是把两种(或多种)事物、同一事物的不同阶段进行比较，借以说明对象的性质、特点和变化。这种说明要注意两者的可比性。

数据与图表说明，这是利用有关数据或图片表格，向人们说明的一种直观说明方式，这种说明要注意数据的准确，图表的鲜明。

说明的文字，必须言简意赅，只要能把事物形状、性质、特征、关系、功用等解说清楚，或把人物的经历、特点、成就等表达明白，就是好的说明。

3、议论

议论就是作者通过事实材料及逻辑推理阐明道理，表明自己的见解、主张以及驳斥别人观点的一种表达方式。

议论有三个要素：论点、论据、论证。所谓论点，是作者对所论问题提出的看法、主张。它可分为中心论点和分论点。中心论点可在文章开头提出，也可在篇末归纳提出，常以一个判断性语句出现在文章中的明显位置上。分论点是从中心论点分化出来的，它为中心论点服务，常是文章每一部分开始提出的小论点。所谓论据是证明论点的理论和事实依据。所谓论证，是用论据证明论点的过程，一般包括论点提出的原因及对论点的基本解说，证明论点的正确(或错误).归纳论证的结果等几个部分。

议论分为两大类，立论和驳论。立论，是正面阐述自己的观点，驳论是反驳他人的论点。在一篇文章中，有的是典型的立论或驳论，有的则交叉使用，破立结合。

论证的方法很多，常用的有：

归纳法。它以事实为论据，从许多“个别”事例中归纳出一个“一般”性的结论。

演绎法。它以推理的方式，从“一般”性结论，演绎出一个“个别”的论断。

举例法。它以事实为论据，用典型事例证明论点是正确的。

引典法。它以名人、经典著作中的言论或公理、常理为论据，证明论点的正确。

比较法。它把不同情况或事物摆出来加以比较，在比较中明辨是非，阐明事理。

类比法。它通过讲故事、举实例，用比喻来证明两个相比事物之间具有某种共同的特点。

驳论法。一是直接反驳，即用确凿的事实或常理，直接批驳错误论点。一种是间接反驳，这种反驳法又可分为归谬法、反证法。归谬法又称为“引申法”，就是对错误观点做“顺水推舟”式的发挥，以充分显示其荒谬;反证法是首先用充分的论据证明与此相对立的观点的正确，借以证明敌对论点是无法成立的。

五、应用文写作的具体要求

1.材料绝对真实

文学作品的题材，可以“上下几千年，纵横数万里”，而应用文写作的取材十分严谨，主要是现实的，与本部门有关的材料。文学作品的题材也要求真实，但那是艺术真实，允许虚构，是社会生活中可能有的，应该有的，但不一定实有其人，实有其事。而应用文，材料必须绝对真实，不允许有一点儿虚构，如时间、顺序、地点以至细技末节方面都不能有所谓“合理想象”，只有保证材料的绝对真实，才有说服力，才有利于问题的解决。

2.主题专一显露

一般地说，应用文要求一文一事，就是较长的文件，也要求只有一个中心思想。这样，可以使重点突出，防止行文关系混乱，提高工作效率，利于问题的解决。写作时，要扣紧主题，围绕中心，不枝不蔓，一气贯通，防止多中心，防止下笔千言，离题万里。应用文还要求开门见山，旗帜鲜明地亮出自己的观点，表明自已的态度。

3.结构完整眉目清楚

结构要完整，简单明了，层次清楚。动笔前先构思，把那些零散材料分析、归纳，根据内容与需要，把它们组织成为一个有机整体。此外要注意划分段落，做到各段既有单一性，又有完整性，即每段只能有一个中心思想、，不能把一些互不相干的意思放在一个段落里，同时，一个意思要在一个段落里说完全，说透彻，不要把一个完整的意思拆散。做到既有“断”，又有“联”，分之为一段，合则为全篇。

4.文字准确简明扼要

正确的思想，要通过准确的语言文字来表达。各种文体对语言文字的要求不尽相同。应用文由于它的特殊作用，在文字表达方面，要求有节制，有分寸，做到准确、鲜明。同时要求不写错字、别字，正确使用标点符号。文面也要求清楚美观，不乱涂乱改，潦草马虎。应用文的务实功能决定了它的篇幅一般较短，要写得简明扼要。用最少的文字，准确、严密地表现最丰富的内容。

5.政策明确风格庄重

应用文是工作中的公务文书，它的政策性很强。因此，在写作前，要认真学习有关方针、政策，领会政策精神，掌握政策界限。在写作中，要处处注意以政策为准绳，根据政策分析问题、解决问题。不同的文体有不同的语体风格。有的含蓄，有的婉转，有的艳丽，有的雄奇，有的幽默风趣，有的自然深沉等等。应用文由于它内容与功能的特点，决定了它庄重，典雅，朴实，自然的风格。崇尚文学笔法的人，以乎实为平庸，鄙薄应用文，以为“不过就是几种格式”，那是片面和肤浅的见识。

中考英语考试中“书面表达”往往是最后一项，怎么样在那么短的时间内尽可能的拿到高分呢?

一、中考英语写作的概述

你对于在中考英语写作中拿高分有把握吗?实际考试中，许多学生却常常有“无话可说”的感觉。那要如何我们才能克服这种无话的状态，取得高分呢?

归根到底这是一个英语基本功——单词、短语和句型的问题。

英语作文的前提条件是掌握了一定量的词汇、语法及体裁、题材等方面的知识。学生如果想要在写作方面有本质上的提升，必须进行多次的写作练习。因此，必须合理地设置训练步骤，遵循从初级到高级，从简单到复杂的原则去练习，经过一段写作实践之后，写作水平一定会有大幅度的提高。

中考英语作文对考生的要求有四点：1、内容要完整。2、语句流畅。3、没有语法错误。4、书写规范。

二、中考英语写作的评分标准

1、老师拿到的标准

写作水平的高低和文章的好坏，分数是最直接的评分标准，也是考生们最关心的。但是多少考生真正透彻知道中考英语写作的评分标准?什么样的文章才是阅卷老师眼中的好文章?

评分标准：

(1)整篇作文满分20分，其中内容8分，语言8分，结构4分。

(2)内容贴切，句子流畅，用语准确，加整体印象分1分。

(3)不满60个词，少1——5个词扣0.5分，6——10个词扣1分。

(4)所有给出问题涉及的三项内容，每少一项扣3分。

(5)每个拼写，大小写，标点符号等错误扣0.5分;同一的拼写错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

(6)语法错误每项扣1分，同一错误不重复扣分，扣分总和不超过2分。

2、老师想看到的标准

语言(8分)：

词——固定搭配、高频重点词汇;

句——复杂句(各种从句)、特殊句型、正确的句子!

内容(8分)：(总、分)论点、论据支持句;简洁、切合主题的记叙内容。

结构(4分)：

语言结构——句子重点突出、内容清晰;

内容结构——论点、论据以及记叙之间的逻辑关系;

句数控制——对于相对内容的句数掌握;

亮点、出彩点——排比、拟人、谚语、成语、押韵等。

三、扣分

内容方面：要点缺失，可酌情扣分。比如中考作文“Iwanttodosomethingformyschool”，若没有写一件具体的事情，是要扣3分以上的;若写的事情太过于虚幻，没有实际内容，也会扣1-2分。

字数：少于60字的作文要酌情扣分。

中考英语作文要求60字以上，标点符号不算，少了就要扣分。

但是60字的作文能不能得高分?从我们拿到的实例作文来看，16分以上的作文，没有少于75字的，甚至少于80字的也少之又少。

当然，也极少有超过100字的，因为中考试卷的短线格一共80个，在格子下面大约还有2行的空间，可以加20字左右，再多阅卷人就很难看清了，也会影响卷面的美观。

所以，同学们如果想让作文得到高分，最好是让字数在75-100字之间。

语法和拼写错误：每个扣0.5，重复错误不计;

标点错误：每4个扣0.5。

四、加分

作文的组织结构分。就是根据学生使用复杂句型、单词和谚语、俗语的情况来加分。只要文章中有1个亮点，基本就可以争取到1分(3分的文采分是很难全部拿到的)。而这1分的亮点，是可以提前准备的。

“万金油”式的复杂句型，例如强调句型、only相关的倒装句等，只要同学们多操练几次，几乎是一定能用到作文当中，从而为自己争取到这1分。

其次就是卷面分。很多家长(微博)和同学，尤其是部分书法并不是十分整洁的同学，都会关心是否真的有“卷面分”的存在。虽然在阅卷标准里面并没有卷面分这一项，但是这个分数却真切地反映在了同学们的分数里面。

据阅卷老师的经验，在阅卷的时候并不是按这3个部分逐项打分的，而是在第一遍读完全文之后，心里已经形成了一个“印象分”，然后再细读第二、三遍，把印象分分配到各个打分部分。

因此，这个“印象分”就非常重要，而同学们的书法，也正是在这个环节，影响到了自己的分数。所以初三的考生，如果书法不好，一定要注意。

一、追根溯源——什么是策论文

所谓策论文，简言之即文章的正文部分以提对策为主。近几年的国考和省考文章命题中都有所涉猎，且题干或要求中已限定只能写策论文。例如：

[2013年国考地市]请以“让……大放异彩”为题，写一篇内容充实的文章。

要求：1.用恰当的文字替换“让……大放异彩”中的省略号部分，是指构成一个完整具体的文章标题;2.主题应与“给定资料”相关，但素材不必拘泥于“给定资料”要结合生活中的具体感受，切忌空谈政策;3.观点鲜明，结构完整，语言流畅;4.字数800-1000字。

[2010年广东省考]针对材料中所反应的问题(仅限所给材料)，以“进一步加强农民工工作”为题，写一篇800字左右的策论文章。

要求：措施全面，结构完整，条理清晰，行文流畅，针对性强，具有可操作性。

二、明确规范——策论文的文章格式

作为申论的文章写作，行文规范是文章的基本要求，也是体现政府机关工作的基本特点。对于策论文写作理应体现以下之规范：

P1：开头 概括材料，分析主题、提出总论点

P2：分论点一(段首为对策性分论点)

P3：分论点二(段首为对策性分论点)

P4：分论点三(段首为对策性分论点)

P5：结尾 总结升华

从此规范可见，策论文的基本特点在于文章主体段落必须以对策加以呈现，望考生能谨记。

三、避免误区——策论文的注意事项

当前很多考生在写策论文的过程中有以下两个误区:

误区一：策论文即文章只能写对策，不能有分析。这是很多考生在文章写作常犯的一个错误，申论文章的写作在于说理，说理势必有理有据，因此自当有分析有对策，分析愈透彻，方显对策之针对性。

误区二：文章主体段落有对策即为策论文。申论文章角度的区分不在于文章篇幅的大小，对策多即为策论文，这是常见的误解。而根本性的判定文章是否为策论文在于段旨句是否为对策。

四、学以致用——策论文分论点来源

古语有云“他山之石可以攻玉”，不管是作为考生平时的知识积累，或是来自于材料中主题所涉及的对策都可成为文章写作的分论点。

以2013年国考地市文章写作为例，材料中谈到了很多文化发展的对策，例：发展文化人才、搭建文化阵地、扶持本国文化事业、重视传统文化教育，都可成为本文写作的分论点，考生可根据对策与主题之间的关系以及对策之间的密切程度酌情筛选，确定分论点。

同时，考生还可根据平时的积累，对于文化发展的对策也可以结合自身，从实际中出发，例如，扎根群众，提高文化自觉性;认真学习，提升文化自信;抵制西化，捍卫文化尊严等等，从这些方面进行论述，进而打造“人无我有，人有我优”的文章写作亮点。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：

Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：

We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V ...(不可否认的...)

例句：

There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：

It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：

There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的优点是...)

例句：

An advantage of using the solar energy is that it wont create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的原因是...)

例句：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此...以致于...)

例句：

So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

十、Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V~~~ (虽然...)

例句：

Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不}

虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~ the + ~er + S + V ~~~

The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~ the + more+ Adj + S + V ~~~(愈...愈...)

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

The more books we read, the more learned we become.

我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。

十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ (借着...，..能够..)

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

十三、~~~ enable + Object(受词)+ to + V (..使..能够..)

例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed.

听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ (我们绝对不能...)

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

十五、It is time + S + 过去式 (该是...的时候了)

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

十六、Those who ~~~ (...的人...)

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

十七、There is no one but ~~~ (没有人不...)

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

没有人不渴望上大学。

十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V (不得不...)

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。

十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 (可想而知的)

It is obvious that + 句子 (明显的)

It is apparent that + 句子 (显然的)

例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

二十、That is the reason why ~~~ (那就是...的原因)

例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I dont like it.

夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式.(过去...年来，...一直...)

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ (...是值得的。)

例句：It pays to help others.

帮助别人是值得的。

二十四、be based on (以...为基础)

例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.

社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

二十五、Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

二十六、bring home to + 人 + 事 (让...明白...事)

例句：We should bring home to people the valueof working hard.

我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

二十七、be closely related to ~~ (与...息息相关)

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

做运动与健康息息相关。

二十八、Get into the habit of + Ving= make it a rule to + V (养成...的习惯)

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

二十九、Due to/Owing to/Thanks to + N/Ving, ~~~(因为...)

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

三十、What a + Adj + N + S + V!= How + Adj + a + N + V!(多么...!)

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise!

How important a thing it is to keep our promise!

遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

三十一、Leave much to be desired (令人不满意)

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

我们的交通状况令人不满意。

三十二、Have a great influence on ~~~ (对...有很大的影响)

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

三十三、do good to (对...有益)，do harm to (对...有害)

例句：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。

Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

三十四、Pose a great threat to ~~ (对...造成一大威胁)

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

污染对我们的生存造成一大威胁。

三十五、do ones utmost to + V = do ones best (尽全力去...)

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。

不少青年教师向我吐苦水：想写论文却不知写什么、怎么写，情急之下只能东拼西凑应付了事。我发现这是一个很普遍的现象。

说一说我的经历吧。由于工作需要，学校安排我由上数学课改为上历史课，算是一个不小的改变。为了适应新工作，我集中全部精力钻研教学，真有点“两耳不闻窗外事，一心只想教学研”，阅读了大量名师、大师的中学历史教学参考资料，为的是能把历史课上得够权威。

可一段时间后，效果并不如我的预期，课堂沉闷、学生没劲、授课吃力成了我最大的困惑。静心反思，我顿悟，一味依赖教材、参考资料，缺少鲜活的素材，导致学生缺乏学习兴趣，正是我课堂的软肋所在。我觉得这是一个很好的课题，便对“学习兴趣与历史课教学的关系”作了深入研究。

另外，我还将竞争机制引入课堂教学，如上复习课，不是简单地重复讲解，而是采用“知识抢答赛”的形式，激发学生动手、动脑、动口，使课堂气氛格外活跃，让学生产生酣战后的痛快淋漓之感，在兴奋的状态下掌握知识。

后来，我把这两个案例从不同侧面整理进了我的教学论文《利用历史教学渗透德育之我见》《怎样提高历史课堂的教学效率》。

我在总结中这样写到：只有在备课中具备强烈的教育教学研究意识，才能进入较深的思维状态，授课才更有科学性和创造性，从而也为撰写论文打下基础。

毋庸置疑，写好教育教学论文，最重要的一环就是认真做好教育教学的研究工作。研究的方面有很多，如教法、学法、基础知识、智力开发、非智力因素等。要把研究与讲课、听课、评课、试卷分析、作业讲评有机结合起来。除了研究，还要注重实践，从实践中来，上升为理论，再回到实践中去，既指导实践，又接受实践的检验。这样多次往复循环，再得出结论，就是不断研究教育教学的过程。夯实了一定的研究基础，又掌握了必要的论文写作知识，这样才能写出有真知灼见的教学论文来。