大学生英语基础写作通用20篇

Grasp all, lose all. 贪多必失.

Whats lost is lost. 失者不可复得。

Waste not, want not. 不浪费,不会穷.

Tomorrow never comes. 切莫依赖明天. / 我生待明日,万事成蹉跎.

No man is infallible. 没有人不犯错误。

Alms never make poor. 施舍穷不了人.

Love will find a way. 爱心所至,金石为开.

Manners make the man. 举止见人品。

Patience is a virtue. 忍耐是一种美德.

Pity is akin to love. 怜悯生爱.

Call a spade a spade. 是啥说啥，难听不怕。

Delays are dangerous. 因循出危险.

Diamond cuts diamond. 强中自有强中手.

Counsel is no command. 劝告不是命令.

Poverty tries friends. 贫穷考验朋友.

Once bitten,twice shy. 吃一次亏,学一次乖.

Pain past is pleasure. 痛苦过去即欢乐.

Leal heart lied never. 心诚无谎言。

Hot love is soon cold. 过热的爱情冷得快.

As good lost as found. 有得必有失. /得失同喜.

Every dog has his day. 瓦块也有翻身日，人人都有运来时。

Wise fear begets care. 懂得担心,就会小心.

"Never”is a long word. 不要轻易说“决不”。

After wind comes rain. 风是雨的头。

Nurture passes nature. 教养胜过天性.

Time tries all things. 时间检验一切.

Boys will be boys. 男孩子总是男孩子.

No song, no supper. 不出力,不得食.

The truth will out. 真相总会大白.

Time works wonders. 时间能创造奇迹.

To think is to see. 思考就是明白.

Truth will prevail. 真理必胜

A lie begets a lie. 谎言生谎言。

Years bring wisdom. 年岁带来智慧.

In love is no lack. 爱情不会感到缺乏.

Easy come, easy go. 来得容易去得 . /悖入悖出.

Every little helps. 点滴都有用.

Forgive and forget. 恢弘大度，勿念旧恶。

Manners maketh man. 举止造人品.

Laugh and grow fat. 心宽体胖 。

Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量.

Let the world slide. 人世沧桑,听其自然.

Love me,love my dog. 爱屋及乌.

Life means struggle. 生活就是斗争.

Fair plays a jewel. 比赛风格好,胜过珠宝.

Early sow,early mow. 种得早,收得早.

书面表达历来是英语教学中一个难点，要想在限定的时间内写出一篇质量上乘的文章，非一日之功。纵观几年来的高考书面表达，我们可以看出，高考英语写作越来越重视情景的设置，要求考生总结自己的感受和见解，给出自己的观点。书面表达又是全面衡量学生英语综合水平的一种测试形式，因此，我们不得不重视。

第一步，写作的内容，要求做到两点— 内容完整、相关。这两点只要考生不粗心，基本都能做到。比如陕西考区的题目，要求写暑假的安排，是一篇正反观点类的议论文。必须注意题目的要求，第一要提出讨论话题，Recently there has been a heated discussion about what the students should do during the summer vacation.(这是一个经典的模版开篇句型)。第二要写出一方面的观点，然后是另一方面的观点，最后提出自己的看法，根据要求缺一不可，否则就会被扣掉相应的分数，这就是完整。再比如，2005年广东考区的成语寓言故事，不仅要描写整个守株待兔的过程，还应该根据要求点名寓意，否则也是不完整，这点只要在课堂上强调，学生是很容易做到的。所谓相关，也就是不要过多出现文中没有的信息，不能过分发挥，一般学生犯此类错误的较少。

第二步，写作中的语法。在阅卷中，一般三个小的语法错误会被扣掉一分，一个大的语法错误(关于谓语的错误)会被扣掉一分。所以，学生应该尽量避免犯语法错误。我在课堂中会强调，对于语法基础薄弱的同学，除了加强自己的语法功底外，就是去背诵我给出的50个最高频用到的句法结构。这些结构不仅正确，而且一定是高考中的有效得分点，即使语法偏弱，记住这些句子然后在考试中使用也能避免学生自己造句中的语法错误，一举两得。比如，倒装句在考试中就很少有同学主动启用，但是一旦正确启用就会收到意想不到的效果，所以我会给出四组倒装句，然后让学生加强运用和练习。这些句子包括：

1、Only when we realize the importance of environmental protection, can we solve the problem of pollution.

2、So precious is time that we can’t afford to waste it.

3、Diligent as he was, he failed in passing the exam.

4、By no means should teenagers get into the habit of smocking.

第三步，连接词的运用，使文章连贯、流畅。我把这些词分为8类，叫做“畅词”，往往学生由于中西方语言的差异，会忽视这一点，所以在授课中会通过大量的练习巩固和加强学生的印象。而且不仅要写，还写出高水平的畅词，因为高考是选拔性考试，要做到“人无我有,人有我优”。比如，“首先”这个表示次序的畅词，一般同学一定想到的是firstly 或者first of all。可是我建议学生启用to begin with, 或者initially (这个是建议水平较好的启用)。“然而”，绝大部分启用but, however，我建议学生采用on the contrary 或者oppositely。

第四步，也是整个课程的核心部分，要强化“复杂、高级”两个概念。为什么是核心呢?因为学生在这一部分没有正确的认识，在平时的学习中老师也没有有意识灌输和训练总结。大部分学生以为只要写出来、写正确就可以拿到高分，其实80-120个单词包括大概10个句子，如果全部是简单的词汇和句型没有办法达到最高档作文的要求。因此，我们强调高级的词汇和高级复杂的句型，不是说全部必须高级，而是必须出现一些才能符合高考作文大纲的要求。在这一步中，我总结的“高分词汇选择原则”、“简单句到复杂句的瞬间转换”、“高分句子写作策略”以及“钻石得分50句”，通过这些理论和实践结合的讲解，学生会感觉成绩的快速提升，效果明显。

一、基础写作训练的方法

1.利用课文的词、句复习，训练学生的组句能力。从词和句入手，将每个单元课文的词和句与基础写作结合起来，是培养和提高学生的英语能力的有效途径。这不仅能帮助提高学生记忆和灵活应用词汇的能力，而且还有助于训练学生语句表达的正确性。

(1)归纳词汇和句型，帮助学生建立对词、句使用的感性认识。写作是一种语言的输出形式，只有大量的语言输入，语言输出才有可能;只有积累了一定的感受和大量的语言素材，写作才有可能进行。为了帮助学生记忆课文中的单词和短语，达到积累语言素材，掌握基本语法知识与语句结构的目的，教师可以从训练学生归纳每个单元课文中出现的重要词汇、短语和常用句型入手，使学生对句型结构的认识更加清楚，并对词、句的使用语境形成感性的认识。

(2)操练词汇和句型，训练学生的记忆和使用词、句的能力。为了使学生掌握和应用课文中所学词汇和句型，教师应为学生创设多层次的练习活动，拓宽写作的训练途径。教师可采用将学生从课文中归纳的词汇、句型进行词类转换、习惯用法、句型转换、完型填空、写短文等形式的训练，帮助提高学生的记忆和使用词、句的能力。

二、借鉴课文词、句进行仿写。

通过提供情景让学生模仿造句，不仅可以降低写作难度，而且可以增加学生写作的兴趣、自信和成就感，使学生的遣词造句的能力在实践中得到提升。

三、借鉴课文句型，训练写作多种表达与技巧，拓展学生思维。

教师在教学实践中会发现，学生在基础写作中往往出现句式雷同、语句呆板、行文单一等现象，缺乏用5个句子有效表达和传输信息的能力。因此，教师就有必要继续进一步加强句子多样化表达、句子转换替代、句子合并等训练，教会学生使用不同的短语、句型结构表达同一的意义;同时，还让学生明白写作的逻辑原则:一个句子表达的信息量越多，而且使用的句子越精练、清楚，那么句意表达和传输信息就越有效。

四、利用课文体裁，训练学生谋篇布局的能力。

教师会发现高三学生在写作中存在的另一个问题是层次不清、结构散乱以及逻辑性不强，这是因为学生缺乏谋篇布局的能力。针对这方面问题，教师可以在教学中利用课文的体裁进行文章结构方面的训练以及进行句子、段落间的连接训练。

写作是考研英语的第二大重头戏，仅次于阅读。但是这部分又经常被考生忽略，考前不动手，依赖临考模板，很难写出高分作文。那么，如何准备2018考研英语写作呢?一起来看下。

对于考研英语写作，最基本的要求是考前必须动笔写出35篇文章，其中十篇应用文，二十五篇图画作文。注意：动笔写的文章最好是有范文的题目。写作应分为五步：

NO.1 写作

写作写作，第一步首先是写!一定要动手写，你看多少，背多少，都没有动手写来得实在，建议同学们拿考题多加练习。

NO.2 仔细对比

第二个就是仔细对比，写完后对照范文从三个方面去研究：第一个是内容，也就是构思和原文有何区别;第二个是语言，也就是用词、用句和原文有何区别?第三个是结构，就是你的行文思路和原文有什么区别?这是第二个步骤，写作的区别其实就是写作的弱点。

NO.3 背诵

第三步骤就是背诵：也就是可以去背诵一些范文。有的同学说了，范文我背过了，但是写作的时候还是不会写。有两个原因，第一个原因是你背得不熟，背得结结巴巴，还不如不背;第二个原因是没有练过，只是死记硬背。

所以为什么背了还不会用，有两个原因，第一背不熟，第二没有练过。背到什么程度，有12个字“滚瓜烂熟、脱口而出、多多益善。”要背到不需要去想，不需要去动脑子!如果背一篇文章还需要去想，那就证明还背得不熟。大家上考场，如果能想起平时的70%，那已经是相当不错了。所以一定要背熟，这就是第三个步骤。

NO.4 默写

第四个步骤就是默写：背熟后把书合上，把这篇文章默写下来。默写后，做一个工作：仔细对比原文发现写作弱点，你会发现你默写的文章和原文会有一些出入，包括拼写、语法、标点等，这种错误就是你写作的弱点，最好能够把这些错误用红笔标出来。大家为什么写作拿不到高分，根源只有一个——错误太多。很多错误自己都不知道。

NO.5 仿写

第五个步骤就是仿写：什么叫仿写?就是模仿你背过的文章再写出一篇新文章。在背完一篇文章后，要想想这篇文章有什么精彩的词组、词汇和句型可以使用。然后换一个话题，把这篇作文用一下，用里面词汇、词组和句型去构思另一篇文章。

写作的注意点和技巧：写作首要的是，一、不跑题;二、字数达到要求;三、字迹整洁工整;四、少有语病。

这些是很基本的要求，考试的时候就要好好落实。比如，拿到作文题目后要审题。在写的过程中注意字数的限制，不要写太多，会扣分的，字数不够也会扣分。所以实在不行就写完一段话，停下来数一数字数。字迹工整可能短期内提高不了。只要你比平时稍慢一点写字母，就会写得比较整洁。要知道老师的印象分是很重要的。病句的避免技巧就是，凡是你想的过程中感觉别扭的句子，多半就是病句。干脆不要写出来，换一种形式去表达。不要追求好词，要追求准确性。

在考前，小作文的提高是非常快的。方法就是分析小作文的类型。应用文写作部分(小作文)考查内容包括投诉信、咨询信、道歉信、求职信等信函类应用文，而且涵盖报告、通知、海报等告示类应用文。不同类型的作文，要自己总结模版。小作文是完全可以准备模版的，其作用也是常明显。一定要注意：总结出自己的模板。

一、中国古代代学

(一)先秦代学

①上古神话。

中国古代神话名篇有:女娲(wā)补天后羿(yì)射日，精卫填海、(盘古)开天辟地、黄帝战蚩(chī)尤等。(刘安：《淮南子》)

②先秦散代

A、儒家经典。

“五经”指《诗经》、《尚书》、《礼记》、《易经》、《春秋》。

“六经”又称六艺 ，在“五经”后增加(《乐》)。

“四书”指《论语》《孟子》《大学》《中庸》。

B、历史散代。 《左传》《战国策》《国语》。

“春秋三秋”《左传》《谷梁传》《公羊传》。

C、诸子百家散代。 著名的有：

①老子，李耳， 字聃(dān)，道家学派创始人,著有《道德经》。

②孔子名丘,字仲尼。是儒家学派创始人、《论语》是孔子弟子记载孔子和他的学生言行的书。

③墨子名翟(dí)，墨家学派创始人。《墨子》53篇。

④孟子名轲，字子舆。儒家学派继承者。《孟子》是孟子学生记录孟子言行的书。《得道多助，失道寡助》《生于忧患，死于安乐》《庄暴见孟子》《鱼我所欲也》。

⑤庄子，名周，战国道家。著《庄子》。《庖丁解牛》

⑥荀子， 战国儒家,著《荀子》32篇、《劝学》

⑦韩非子，法家。著《韩非子》。《扁鹊见蔡桓公》《五蠹》《智子疑邻》。

⑧《吕氏春秋》又称《吕览》,是秦相吕不韦和他的门客的集体创作。《察今》。

⑨李斯的代表作是散代《谏逐客书》。

③先秦诗歌

A、《诗经》。《诗经》是我国第一部诗歌总集,共305篇分风、雅、颂三类、风是民歌,雅是乐歌,学习规律,颂是祭歌。诗经的表现手法是比、兴、赋。比即比喻，以彼物比此的。兴,先言他物以引起所咏之词，赋，直陈其事。

B、《楚辞》。西汉学者刘向把屈原宋玉等人的作品编辑成书，定名为《楚辞》。屈原(前340?-前277?)名平,我国伟大爱国主义诗人、曾在楚国任左徒三闾大夫等职。代有作是《离骚》《九歌》《九章》。

(二)、两汉代学

A、两汉散代

①贾谊，世称贾生。又称贾长沙，贾太傅。著《新书》十卷。《过秦论》、《论积贮疏》是他的代表作。

②司马迁，字子长,伟大的史学家、代学家。著《史记》首创“纪传体”,分为本纪、世家、列传、表、书。

鲁迅称《史记》为“史家之绝唱，无韵之离骚”。

③班固的《汉书》 刘向编订的《战国策》都名传史册。

B、乐府民歌和赋。乐,民乐;府，官府、乐府原为汉代音乐机关所搜集的诗、《孔雀东南飞》是汉乐府叙事发展的高峰。最早见于南朝徐陵编纂的《玉台新咏》、赋是我国古代韵代和散代的综合体。司马相如的《子虚赋》《上林赋》。贾谊的《吊屈原赋》都很有名。

(三)、魏晋南北朝代学

1、魏晋南北朝的诗歌和散代

①“三曹”、“三曹”即曹氏父子曹操、 曹丕、 曹植。曹操的《观沧海》，曹丕的《蒿里行》，曹植的《名都篇》《白马篇》《洛神赋》都很有名。

②“建安七子” 。孔融、陈琳、王粲、徐干、阮?、应?、刘桢

③“竹林七贤”。 阮籍、稽康、山涛、刘伶、王戎、向秀、刘咸

④陶渊明,名潜,字元亮，世称靖节先生。 《桃花源记》《归去来辞》《归园田居》《饮酒》是传世之作。

⑤此外, 诸葛亮《出师表》、范晔(yè)《后汉书》、陈寿《三国志》、王羲之《兰亭集序》、刘勰《代心雕龙》、郦道元《水经注》都名垂史册。

2、魏晋南北朝的小说。

①志怪小说以干宝《搜神记》为代表。 《干将莫邪》。

②轶事小说以刘义庆的《世说新语》为代表。《周处》。

诗词，是指以古体诗、近体诗和格律词为代表的中国汉族传统诗歌。亦是汉字文化圈的特色之一。小编收集了诗词写作的基础知识，欢迎阅读。

【含义】

押韵，又作压韵，是指在韵文的创作中，把相同韵部的字放在规定的位置上。诗词歌赋句末(偶亦在句中)用同一韵母的字，以使声韵和谐。一般用于偶句句尾。也称韵脚。在某些句子的最后一个字，都使用韵母相同或相近的字，使朗诵或咏唱时，产生铿锵和谐感。

所谓韵部，就是将相同韵母的字归纳到一类，这种类别即为韵部。同一韵部内的字都为同韵字。

任何诗歌都要求押韵，古今中外概莫能外，所不同者，对于押韵的限制多与少、严与宽的不同而已。这也是诗歌同其它文学体裁的最大分别。比较常用的是《108部平水韵》，详见前篇“浅谈古诗词韵律”。

押韵是增强诗歌音乐性的重要手段，近体诗为了使声调和谐、容易记忆，对于押韵十分讲究。古人通常使用官方颁布的专门指导押韵的书，如《唐韵》、《广韵》、《礼部韵略》、《佩文诗韵》、《诗韵集成》、《诗韵合壁》等，以南宋王文郁撰的《新刊韵略》最为流行，刘渊先生后来编著了一本《壬子新刊礼部韵》，即现在的《平水韵》。

韵脚是韵文(诗、词、歌、赋等)句末押韵的字。一篇(首)韵文的一些(或全部)句子的最后一个字，采用韵腹和韵尾相同的字，这就叫做押韵。因为押韵的字一般都放在一句的最后，故称“韵脚”。引这些字的韵母要相似或相同。

韵又叫做韵母。韵母分为韵首、韵腹、韵尾三部分。一般只要韵尾相同，韵腹相同或者相近即可，而对于韵首则不做考虑。律诗里的韵和现代普通话里以及新华字典里的韵不尽相同，有些字，看着读音相同，韵母也一样，但却不属于同一个韵部;而有些字，看着读音有差异。所以，写诗的时候，应该先掌握一些简单的声韵知识。

韵是诗词格律的基本要素之一。从《诗经》到后代的诗词，差不多没有不押韵的。民歌也没有不押韵的。在北方戏曲中，韵又叫辙，押韵叫合辙。一首诗有没有韵，是一般人都觉察得出来的。至于要说明甚么是韵，那却不太简单。但今天的汉语拼音字母，对于韵的概念还是容易说明的。

诗词中所谓韵，大致等于汉语拼音中所谓韵母。大家知道，一个汉字用拼音字母拼起来，一般都有声母，有韵母。例如"公"字拼成gōng，其中g是声母，ōng是韵母。声母总是在前面的，韵母总是在后面的。同韵的字大致都可以用来押韵。

举个例子：

《书湖阴先生壁》

(宋)王安石

茅檐常扫净无苔，

花木成蹊手自栽。

一水护田将绿绕，

两山排闼送青来。

这里"苔"、"栽"和"来"押韵，因为它们的韵母都是ai。"绕"字不押韵，因为"绕"字拼起来是rào，它的韵母是ao，跟"苔"、"栽"、"来"不是同韵字。依照诗律，像这样的四句诗，第三句是不押韵的。

在拼音中，a、e、o的前面可能还有i，u、ü，如ia，ua，uai，iao，ian，uan，üan，iang，uang，ie，üe，iong，ueng等，这种i，u，ü叫做韵头，不同韵头的字也算是同韵字，也可以押韵。

例如：

《四时田园杂兴》

(宋)范成大

昼出耘田夜绩麻，

村庄儿女各当家。

童孙未解供耕织，

也傍桑阴学种瓜。

诗中的"麻"、"家"、"瓜"的韵母是，韵母虽不完全相同，但它们是同韵字，押起韵来是同样谐和的。

押韵的目的是为了声韵的谐和。同类的乐音在同一位置上的重复，这就构成了声音回环的美。但是，为甚么当我们读古人的诗的时候，常常觉得它们的韵并不十分谐和，甚至很不谐和呢?这是因为时代不同的缘故。语言发展了，语音起了变化，我们拿现代的语音去读它们，自然不能完全适合了。

例如：

《山行》

(唐)杜牧

远上寒山石径斜，

白云深处有人家。

停车坐爱枫林晚，

霜叶红于二月花。

xié和jiā，huā不是同韵字，但是，唐代"斜"字读siá(s读浊音)，和上海"斜"字的读音一样。因此，在当时是谐和的。

又如：

《江南曲》

(唐)李益

嫁得瞿塘贾，

朝朝误妾期。

早知潮有信，

嫁与弄潮儿。

在这首诗里，"期"和"儿"是押韵的;按今天普通话去读，qī和ér就不能算押韵了。如果按照上海的白话音念"儿"字，念像ní音(这个音正是接近古音的)。今天我们当然不可能(也不必要)按照古音去读古人的诗;不过我们应该明白这个道理。

古人押韵是依照韵书的。古人所谓"官韵"，就是朝廷颁布的韵书。这种韵书，在唐代，和口语还是基本上一致是;依照韵书押韵，也是比较合理的。宋代以后，语音变化较大，诗人们仍旧依照韵书来押韵，那就变为不合理的了。今天我们如果写旧诗，自然不一定要依照韵书来押韵。不过，当我们读古人的诗的时候。却又应该知道古人的诗韵。

通常讲的押韵，人们比较熟悉。新诗、戏曲、快板、顺口溜，都讲押韵。在这几种文体中，按照汉语拼音，一般韵母相同的字就可以用来押韵。

然而，格律诗的用韵，与此不同。格律诗必须按照诗韵来写，就是要按照韵书中分列的韵目，来辨别平仄和选择押韵的字。一首诗的所有韵脚，必须从同一个韵目中选字来押韵。如李白的《敬亭山》，用的“闲”和“山”这两个韵脚，就同属于“删”这个韵目。

一首诗中，如果有一个韵脚用了别的韵目的字，就叫做“出韵”。在科举中，出韵的诗算不合格。比如按照现代普通话，“闲”和‘先”当然是可以押韵的，但按照诗韵则不可以，因为这两个字分属于两个不同的韵目。

导语：活动类作文属于叙事作文，在写作过程中重点表现活动的重点。下面是活动类作文写作基础，欢迎参考!

一、写学习和文体活动的作文类型

1.写一次学习或文体活动，反映校园生活的丰富多彩;

2.写一次学习或文体活动，表现同学们有着广泛的兴趣和爱好;

3.写一次学习或文体活动，表现全班同学的精神风貌和合作态度。

二、写学习和文体活动的参考题目

1.《记一次兴趣小组的活动》

2.《记一次学习的争论》

3.《记一次智力竞赛》

4.《记一次游戏活动》

5.《记一次_______比赛》

6.《一次快乐的周末联欢会》

7.《记一次升旗仪式》

8.《记一次入队仪式》

三、写学习和文体活动的参考开头

1.《记一次兴趣小组活动》的两种开头

第一种开头：下午第二节一下课，我们就一起来到了生物活动室，参加“红蜻蜒生物活动小组”。

第二种开头：“今天的红蜻蜒生物活动小组不知道活动什么内容?”下午第二节课下课的铃声一响，我们就议论开了。

2.《记一次智力竞赛》的两种开头

第一种开头：星期三下午，我们五年级举行了一场别开生面的学习竞赛：语文知识智力竞赛。

第二种开头：“善耕小学五年级语文智力竞赛，现在开始!”随着年级主任王老师的一声宣布，别开生面的竞赛活动开始了!

3.《记一次升旗仪式》的两种开头

第一种开头：星期一的早晨，天，格外地蓝;风，格外地柔，这一天，我们五(2)中队就要举行隆重的升旗仪式。

第二种开头：绿绿的草坪，高高的旗杆，一队队少先队员精神振奋，他们正等待着庄严的升旗仪式的到来。

四、写学习和文体活动的参考词句

书声琅琅/有条不紊/心不在焉/欢声笑语/静悄悄/掩卷沉思/频频点头/聚精会神/跳了起来/笑眯眯/有高有低/比唱歌还要好听/瞥见了/华丽/思路开阔/老高老高/乱蹦乱跳/冷不防/左瞧右看/仔细欣赏/轻轻飘浮/郁郁葱葱/变幻无穷/广阔无垠/心里痒痒的/端端正正/难分难解/一马当先/鼓起勇气/动作灵巧/不负众望/以守为攻/一鼓作气

1.队员们的脸上泛起了笑容，惊奇的目光变成了赞叹。

2.这时，全场静寂得连摄影师拨弄快门的声音都听得见。3.最吸引人的是五年级同学表演的“红领巾考察团”的节目。

4.我一出台，就在小白兔屋外的篱笆边探头探脑地张望着，台下的观众一下子哄笑起来。

5.“我”把嘴张得大大的，爪子伸得长长的，黑鼻子狂嗅着，活像一只真的大灰狼。

6.二十秒，不分胜负!三十秒，不分胜负!啊，五十秒，还不分胜负……

7.比赛开始了，投掷区内垒球、手榴弹像天上的流星一样飞落在很远的地方。

8.“砰”的一声，一颗红色的信号弹腾空而起，场上身穿各色衣衫的运动员，“刷”地从起跑线上飞出去，像一片彩云。

9.守门员敏捷灵巧的动作，博得全场热烈的掌声。

10.比赛场上响起一阵轰雷似的掌声，我们终于赢了!

五、写学习和文体活动的参考段落

1.去年夏天，我第一次到龙潭湖采集标本。那天天很热，我拿起捉蝴蝶和蜻蜓的网子，背着标本采集箱，在草丛中来回巡视着。忽然，不远的一棵小树上，一只蝉在鸣叫。我走到树下，抬头望去，只见一只螳螂从蝉的下面沿着树干爬了上去。渐渐近了，蝉没有发觉，还在叫着。螳螂又爬了几步，来到了蝉的后面，举起“大刀”，一下子把蝉按在下面，蝉不叫了，它受到了这突然的袭击，有些慌乱，它挣扎着想逃走。可绿色卫士似的螳螂哪里肯放过，它把蝉翻过来，让蝉肚皮朝天，然后挥动着“大刀”，一下刺进了蝉的肚子里。蝉疼得乱动乱叫，可螳螂不慌不忙，一口一口，把蝉吃下肚去。我看着看着有些吃惊，因为我从来没见过螳螂吃蝉。这一次真是让我大开眼界。

(采集标本活动让我增长了不少知识，见到了很多没有见过的精彩场面。)

2.同学们心情大概也和我一样，大家伸长了脖子，睁大了眼睛，盯着李老师的每一个动作。李老师从一个小瓶子里倒出一点深褐色的粉末，又在粉末上滴了几滴液体。几秒钟过去了，不见动静。教室里鸦雀无声，大家将信将疑地等待着。又过了几秒钟，只见石棉板上出现了一丝青烟，袅袅上升。不一会儿，烟越来越浓，还听见噼噼啪啪的炸裂声。啊，要烧起来了。果然，一下子腾起了蓝色的火苗，火越烧越旺。教室里一下子像开了锅似的，欢呼声，鼓掌声，议论声响成一片。

(小作者写声音的变化很有本事，你看他先是“鸦雀无声”，到“一丝青烟”，再到“噼噼啪啪”的炸裂声，最后是“像开了锅似的”，多么生动，多么有味!)

3.我俩摆开阵势扭打开了。我光凭着自己劲大，加之求胜心切，想一下子把他拉倒。可是越急，越乱了脚步。张忠对我的扭拉只是躲闪招架。忽然他看准我的一个破绽，脚下一使绊，使了个“拐把”，把我摔了个狗吃屎。第二次交手，我使出浑身解数，拿出平生力气，死扭硬拉，可他像一尊铁塔，任我怎么折腾他也摔不倒。突然，他一只手抓起我的脚，一只手在我胸前稍微往后一推，我又仰面倒在地上。周围又是一片叫好声。

(虽然很想赢，但是因为技不如人，也只好认输了。)

4.观众们一个个瞪大了眼睛看布条往哪儿走。正在这时，红布条慢慢向三(3)班方向移动了。周围的观众都喊：“三(3)班加油!三(3)班加油!”我们听到了喊声，都鼓起了勇气，脸涨得通红，眼睛睁得大大的，身子拼命往后倾斜，差点快碰到地上了。红布条又慢慢向我们班级移动。“哗……”比赛场上响起了一阵轰雷似的掌声，我们赢了。

(抓住了红布条来写，是很正确的。因为红布条是胜利的象征。)

5.轮到我们钉了。我迫不及待地把线浸了唾沫捻了捻。可是我这一捻，把那几个小毛头捻成又细又长的了，穿针的时候，我穿来穿去就是穿不进。我把毛头拽下来以后才穿了进去。接着，我在线的末端打结。由于线上有唾沫，打结的时候，老是粘在手指上打不起来，好不容易把结打好了。开始钉钮扣了，我用右手拿着针从布底下穿上来，可是没穿到钮扣眼里，倒戳在钮扣上。我觉得针前面硬硬的，还以为布是硬的呢，于是我就使劲地戳。哪知道针戳不穿钮扣，反而歪过来，正戳在我手上。这时我才感觉到钉钮扣不简单啊!一颗钮扣钉好了，该打结了，这一项我干得很顺利，一会儿就打好了。

(能把穿针引线的事情写得这样详细，不容易!的确，在写作之中，有的地方是要像穿针引线一样仔仔细细，认认真真。)

6.游戏一开始，同学们就高高兴兴地排好了队，有的同学认为画鼻子很简单，显出很不在意的样子;有的同学却皱着眉头在想画的办法。排在最前面的李红高兴得手舞足蹈，她刚把红领巾蒙到眼睛上，就迫不及待地向前大步走去。她事先也没看好目标，就走了过去，结果她越走方向越歪，旁边有个同学小声地说：“太往左了，往右!”她愣了一下，站住了，马上向偏右的方向走去，又太歪了。到了黑板前，她也不想想黑板的位置，就随便一画，结果把鼻子画到了头顶上，引得同学们哄堂大笑。

(写活动时，周围人的态度和言行是很重要的，不可缺少。这能起到渲染气氛和突出人物的效果。)

7.第四场比赛就轮到我们四年级同学了，我们全班同学按座号坐下后，只听得监考老师一声令下，比赛开始了。同学们连忙打开桌上发的试卷，迅速地算了起来。这时，赛场上一片寂静，我耳朵里只听到沙沙的写字声。“快做!”催促着自己，不断地挥动手中的铅笔。“八九七十二、八八六十四……”我默读着乘法口诀，还运用我自己的“加减速算法”，作出了一道又一道算术题。时间一秒一秒地过去了，我忘记了一切。嘿，快做完了，就剩下最后一道四则运算题了，我高兴得差点叫了起来。可就在这一瞬间，“收卷时间到!”随着监考老师的一声，比赛结束了。我不得不放下手中的笔。我拍着自己的脑袋，恨我自己做得太慢了，为什么不能按时完成呢?我低着头难过地离开了考场。

(有面的描写——赛场上一片寂静;也有点的描写，就是写我在赛场上的表现。点面结合，就立体化了，给人的印象就比较深。)

8.一声哨响，第三局比赛开始了。我的心怦怦直跳。我屏住了呼吸，用足力气，两只手像两把小钳子一样牢牢握紧绳子。在我前面的小胖鼓着腮，把牙咬得格格响，脸涨得通红。平时很文静的小芳也变得非常严肃，只见她的眼睛瞪得大大的，紧锁双眉，拼命地用力。尽管我们使足了劲，可绳子中央的红领巾并不听话，正偷偷向五(1)班那边移去。“加油!加油!”场外的小观众为我们急得直跺脚。“不要急，要沉着，劲往一处使，一定能胜利!”我们的班主任老师带领着啦啦队也在为我们鼓劲。

(写活动，要注意把“点”写好，所谓的“点”，实际上就是一个个人的情况，而不是一群人的情况。比如在这段文章里，作者写的是一场拔河比赛，当然有很多的人参加。在描写时，适当地描写一下个人的情况，能够把这场比赛介绍得更加详细。你看，这一段文字就写了“我、小胖和小芳”的比赛情况，使人能够更具体地了解当时比赛的过程。你觉得是不是这样?)

9.楼上的一排教室灯火通明。陈强那个班的教室在最后一间。他依次从宽敞的窗户望进去，嗬，教室全都变了样：五色纸链织成的一道道彩虹在灯光下交相辉映，课桌都拼成了一张张长条桌，桌上铺上红格或蓝格的桌布，一瓶鲜花放在桌子中间的生日蛋糕圆盒旁。长桌的数目与小队的数目一致，讲台上也铺着桌布，放着鲜花。陈强觉得，那生日蛋糕在商店里给人的感觉只不过是一种精美的食品，可今晚放在教室里就有了另一种含义，不由得令人肃然起敬。

(写活动时，需要进行周围环境的描写，因为活动的地点需要介绍呀，是不是?所以，在描写活动前，应该先把活动的场地介绍一下。一般来说，活动前，总要先把环境布置布置。美一点，才能开开心心地搞活动呀!)

10.有趣的斗蛋比赛在热烈的气氛中结束了。斗蛋手们，有的高兴，有的难过，你瞧：胜利者正在津津有味地吃着蛋，他们一定觉得手中的蛋格外香吧!那些“败将”们呢，愁眉苦脸地看着那不争气的蛋，吃也吃不下，扔又舍不得扔。不过到了最后，他们还是偷偷地把蛋吃掉了。他们一定一边吃，一边安慰自己：蛋破了更好，还省得自己敲碎呢!

(写活动结束后的情景，这一段写得较好。特别是写那些比赛失败的选手们的心情，写得很有特色。作者不是净写他们的愁眉苦脸，还写了他们对自己的安慰，而且还的确有点道理。这种很有幽默感的句子，可以看出小作者的水平的确高人一筹。不过，大家有没有注意到，这些句子，作者全都是用一种猜测的语气写出来的，为什么要这样处理呢?)

11.我走进二楼的比赛室，看见许多选手已经在写了，就赶紧走到自己的座位上，拿出了文房四宝。我一边折纸，一边自己叮嘱自己：“千万不要紧张，要发挥出自己的最佳水平来。”我看了看边上的几位选手写的字，真不错，便更加感到自己肩负的责任重大。我暗暗下了决心：一定要战胜他们!我定定了神，就拿起毛笔，蘸足了墨水，开始写字。

(文中有两处心理描写。看起来，如果要表现自己的一种精神，就可以用这种手法。写的时候，可以用文中“叮嘱自己”和“暗暗地下定了决心”这样的句式，后面跟上冒号就可以了。)

12.中秋节的晚上，月儿格外地明，我和妈妈来到学校。不一会儿，老师宣布晚会开始。第一个项目就是竞选中队长。我和竞选对手——周玉，同时坐到了主席台上。我的心怦怦地跳着，再看看一旁的周玉，他也是那样地紧张。我想：如果竞选失败，那多难为情……

(竞选中队长，这种场面的确是够让人紧张的。作者通过写景，写竞选对手周玉和自己的内心活动，把这种紧张一层一层地写出来了。)

13.哗哗哗……一阵阵热烈的掌声;哈哈哈……一阵阵朗朗的笑声。这里出了什么稀罕的事?啊，原来是我班女同学正在进行梳辫子比赛。前几天，同学们就得到了这个消息。今天上午第三节课，比赛正式开始了。一个个女同学站到了讲台前。我们男同学不时地在后面挤眉弄眼，悄悄议论着，谁能取胜。

(写活动，开头很容易写得一般化，或是简单地交待时间，或是简单地交待地点，等等。这里的一段文字就显得与众不同。你看它的开头，又是拟声词，又是排比句，非常地新颖，很能吸引读者。)

14.夜幕降临了，操场上燃起了熊熊的火焰，营火晚会开始了，全场欢腾起来，大家手拉手跳起了优美的集体舞。同学们的表演更是精彩。瞧，张刚和李强的相声多么有趣，逗得大家合不拢嘴;夏艺同学的电子琴独奏，让人暗暗称赞;田珂同学的魔术表演，让同学们琢磨不透，联想翩翩……

(用一两句话简单地介绍当时活动的情况，这很有必要。如果全是详细的描写和叙述，没有简略的介绍，这就像没有绿叶的红花一样，是不够完美的。当然，反过来也一样。)

15.班里联欢会进行击鼓传花游戏。鼓停时，拿着花的同学就要表演节目。顽皮的刘平又开始捣鬼，他一直抓住花，咚咚咚——鼓点刚落，他眼疾手快，猛地把花丢给旁边的沈晴。花在沈晴的怀里打了个转，落到了地上，沈晴傻乎乎地把花捡在手里，这才知道上了当。她犹豫了半天，还是被推到场中。她挠挠头皮，又使劲咽了一下口水。“来来，唱一个!来来，唱一个!……”经不住同学们再三欢迎，她只得放开嗓子唱了起来。

(写那朵花在沈晴怀里的情景，写得很不错，细致而又生动。)

六、写学习和文体活动的参考题材

1.举行各种学习竞赛，让同学们在充满趣味和竞争的学习气氛中得到知识，丰富课外生活;

2.老师让同学们学做小老师，一帮一，一对红，大家很欢迎这种学习的形式;

3.我们的课外活动很是丰富，我们搞了写字比赛、漫画比赛、普通话比赛、诗歌比赛、小品比赛、童年回忆录写作比赛等等;

4.我们的学习活动不仅在课堂里，而且有时还安排在工厂里，田野里和大街上，老师们是让我们认识到社会就是一个大课堂，知识的学习并不局限在教室里;

(以上可以作为写学习活动的题材。)

5.班级举行文娱活动，活跃同学们的课外生活，同时也是在锻炼大家的各种能力;

6.班级举行自炊活动，同学们自带米、菜和煤炉，在教室里做了一桌饭菜;

7.班级里举行小奥运会，与国际奥运会的项目基本相同，大家感到很有兴趣;

8.班级举行**比赛，大家经过几轮赛事，最后比出了冠亚军;

9.班级里掀起了学下国际象棋的活动，两周以后，大家还举行了国际象棋的比赛。

(以上可以作为写文娱和体育活动的题材。)

主题是文章的统帅和纲领，是文章的核心;主题源于材料，主题不能先行，必须从实际出发，从材料中引出主题。实用文体主题的表现表式主要有：①直接阐述;②单一集中;③以意役法;④片言居要;⑤善用标题。

文章结构安排的环节主要包括：选择角度;设置线索;安排层次;划分段落;设计开头与结尾;处理过渡和照应等。文章的结构应达到严谨(严密精细，无懈可击)、自然(顺理成章，开阖自如)、完整(匀称饱满，首尾圆合)、统一(和谐一致，通篇一贯，决不相互抵触，自相矛盾)

文章常用的表达方法有叙述、描写、议论、说明，其中议论的方法又可具体分为：①例证法;②喻证法;③类比法;④对比法;⑤反驳法;⑥归谬法。

语言运用的基本要求：合体、得体，准确、顺达，简洁、明快，生动、有力。

不少同学在问了，英语作文怎么写?如何写好英语作文，下面是小编为大家收集的初中英语作文的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

初一英语写作题，题材一般是写人、写事、写物、写景、日记、书信、通知、便条等文体。一般来说，不同的写作题材，它的人物，时间，写作的重点也是不尽相同的。下面结合一些常见的题型介绍一下写作的注意事项以及写作技巧。

各地的评分标准略有差异，但是都包括以下几个方面：整体印象、语言表达、词数规定等几方面内容。我们在写作中要尽量避免扣分，争取有加分点。当然用英文写作不同于用母语那样得心应手，常常会受到生词、语法、惯用法的限制，只要同学们平时注意两种语言的异同性，抓住写作要点，也可妙笔生花。

1、为了保证文章层次分明、条理清楚，要把时间固定下来，如：记叙一件事要用过去时;写经常发生的事或对人物的描写，要用一般现在时。整个文章中的人称要一致，首尾呼应，不要随意改动，以免造成误解。

2、不要为了追求“一鸣惊人”而去找一些生冷的词汇，对这些一知半解的词你不会用，不知道如何搭配，结果可能适得其反，使文章显的生硬、不协调，甚至错误百出，所以要使用有把握的词，避免不必要的失分。比如说发生了一起意外事件，我们通常用“have an accident ”来表示，不要错误的使用“have an incident”。

3、注意不同语言的表达习惯，也是写好英语作文的重要环节，如“我的理想是做一名歌手”，很多同学写成“My ambition is to do/make a singer，” “to do”表示“做”或者“干”，“to make”表示“制作”，而“做一名歌手”则表示“成为一名歌手”应该用“be/become a singer”;又如“看书、看报”应用“read a book/newspaper”，而不是“see a book/newspaper”。因此，平时应该注意不同语言的表达习惯，切忌望文生义或一味生搬硬套。

4、有些同学因怕出错而只写短句或简单句，写出的文章过于幼稚、空洞乏味。要使文章有血有肉就要把平时学的知识用进去，如：定语从句、宾语从句、非谓语动词和比较等句型，关键时用上一、二个，就能使文章不同凡响，更有文采，特别是对关联词的使用，如“so that”、“not…but ”“not only...but also”等，会使你的文章逻辑结构紧密、层次鲜明、条理清楚，更能显示出你的英文功底，但要做到这些并非一日之功，要靠平时的不断训练和积累。

5、最简单的增分点就是认真的书写。工整漂亮的书写会给评卷老师留下美好的第一印象，在扣分时自然会“手下留情”，而且很多地区都在写作上有1分的书写分。只要平时多下点功夫，得到这一分并不难。

注意事项

最后将英语写作的基本步骤和技巧归纳为以下几个环节：

1、细心审题细读题目中每一项提示或观察所给的每一幅画，明确文章的中心思想，弄清题意，确定写作体裁，掌握所要表达的要点做到心中有数，避免随心所欲，文不对题。

2、理顺要点在所给提示或图上标出要点，然后按事件先后的顺序或各要点之间的内在联系排序，分出层次。如果是看图作文，则要按图构思，这样做既可避免要点遗漏，又可使表达内容条理清楚。

3、构成框架将理顺的要点或每幅图画的含义加以连贯，构成写作的整体框架，进一步定人称、定时态语态、定顺序、定段落、定开头结尾。基本框架构成后，写作就有了把握。

4、组织句子用自己最熟悉的短语或句型将理顺的要点逐句表达出来，多用简单句，用有把握的复合句。要扬长避短，避难就易。若遇到表达障碍，可换一种说法，将一句变成两、三句，只求达意。

5、串句成篇将写好的句子连贯地组织起来，注意上下句的逻辑关系，适当采用递进、让步、转折、因果等关联词语，使短文浑然一体，层次分明，过渡自然。6、检查修改文章草成后，默读1～2遍，检查修改，尤其要注意人称、大小写、拼写、习惯用语、格式有无错误，要点有无遗漏，文句有无语病，词数是否恰当，行文是否连贯。

英语写作水平的提高是一个渐进的过程，只要同学们在平时多加训练，多读文章，做一个有心人，就能在英语作文中取得理想的成绩

导语：要学好写英语短文，就必须经常练习写作。记日记是提高书面表达能力的有效方法之一。下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的优秀英语作文指导，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

一、日记的格式

英文日记通常由书端和正文两个部分组成。日记常以第一人称记下当天生活中的所见、所闻、所做或所想的事情。中、英文的日记三格式大致一样。英语日记的书端是专门写日记的日期、星期和天气的。左上角是日期(年、月、日)、星期。右上角写上当天的天气情况，如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Windy，Snowy，Cloudy等。

1、日期表达有多种形式。年、月、日都写时，通常以月、日、年为顺序，月份可以缩写，日和年用逗号隔开。例如：

A)September 1，2004或September 1st，2004也可省略写成Sept. 1，2004或Sept. 1st，2004;the 1st of September in 2004(月份不可以缩写)

B)只有月、日：September 1或September 1st(月份可以缩写)

C)只有年、月：September 2004或the September of 2004(月份不可以缩写)

以上的1或1st都应读作the first.

2、星期也可以省略不写，可将其放在日期前或后，星期和日期之间不用标点，但要空一格，星期也可缩写。如：

Saturday，October 22nd，2004;October 22nd，2004 Saturday

3.天气情况必不可少。天气一般用一个形容词如：Sunny，Fine，Rainy，Snowy 等表示。写在日期之后，用逗号隔开，位于日记的右上角。如：

Saturday，March 4，2004，Windy;1st January，2004，Fine

二、日记的要求

日记的正文是日记的主要部分，写在星期和日期的正下方，可以顶格写，也可以内缩3至5个字母的空间。由于记载的内容通常已经发生，谓语动词多用一般过去时。但也可根据具体情况，用其它时态。如：记叙天气、描写景色，为了描写生动，可以使用现在时，以表现当时的情景。再如文后发表感想或评论可用现在时态或将来时态。记日记力求简单明了，有连贯性。若有文字提示，则应重视提示，把握要点。在句式上尽量使用简单句，以防繁杂，造成语法、句型错误。

三、日记的类型和训练

日记分为记事型、议论型、描写型和抒情型。建议大家在学习写日记的过程中，可按以下步骤进行：

①将一天所经历的主要事情和过程依次简要地记下来，不附加任何感情色彩，这是最简单的记日记的方法;

②阅读别人的日记，并利用所学过的句型来表达个人在一天中观察到的或感受到的事情。

「范文与点评」

March 12th，2003，Tuesday Sunny (Fine)

Today is Tree Planting Day. At 7∶30 in the morning，all the students in our class met at the school gate. We walked to the park. Miss Gao and other teachers went and worked with us. All the students worked very hard，and we planted about 200 trees. Though we were dirty and tired，we still felt very happy.

这是一篇记叙型的日记。结构严谨，中心突出，有选择地记录当天的见闻(人或事)，并加以分析和评论。

每到毕业，同学们都要写毕业论文。那么本科毕业论文该怎么写呢。下面是小编收集了本科毕业论文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、如何选题

确立论文题目，就是确定研究的目标，研究的主攻方向。考生在选题时应该注意以下三点：

1、论题要大小适中。题目不要太大，尽量"小题大做"。

2、注意研究角度要有新意。进行科学研究，就是找问题，没有新问题就谈不上研究，更谈不到创新，论文也就没有写作的价值，因此，确定研究方向只有从新的角度去研究、研究以前没有人研究过的问题，或者是研究过探讨过但说法不一的问题去分析论证，才会得出与众不同的结论，才会见出新意。

3、要知己知彼。在选题中，要了解本专业本领域中已有的科研成果，了解别人已经解决了什么问题，还存在什么问题;是否有争论，争论的焦点是什么;那些方面的研究较薄弱，那些方面的研究尚待开拓等等。只有知己知彼才能避免重复和雷同。

二、根据论题，拟定论文提纲

根据论文题目，充分、大量的搜集查找资料。可以通过图书馆各类藏书和情报机构电脑文件检索，国际互联网络的远程登陆、查询、浏览或阅读大量文献资料来获取论文素材。还可以进行实地调查，可通过开会、访谈、观察、统计、论证、实验学习等方法来获取资料。

收集资料主要注意三种：1、与论题直接相关的原始材料;2、他人对该论题或相关论题的研究成果材料;3、与论题有关的社会、文化、语言、历史背景等方面的材料。

收集资料既要有历史材料，也要有现实的材料;既要有正面材料，也要有反面的材料;既要有面上的材料，也要有点上的材料;只有全面地拥有材料，才有可能产生正确而富有创见的观点，展开深刻而周密的论述。

有了充分的材料，还要进行整理分析比较，"去粗取精，去伪存真"对资料进行推敲、筛选，留下最能反映本质、最有说服力的材料，同时提炼和形成自己的观点也就是论点，明确拟定论文提纲。

形成论点时应注意：1、论点要鲜明，不能含糊其词，同时论点又要辩证，不能走极端;2、论点要科学正确，不与常理和事实相背离;3、论点要准确，不要夸大其词，防止偏颇。

拟定论文提纲可以是简单提纲，也可以是详细提纲。简单提纲只是概括地提示论文的要点;详细提纲则是把论文的主要论点和展开部分较详细的列出来，这样写作时就能更顺利完成。

提纲可以采用标题式、提要式和图表式三种，一般标题式较为常用，用简洁的标题形式把论文各部分的内容要点概括出来，同时这些标题可直接作为论文中各部分的小标题。

三、撰写正文

正文是论文的核心部分，占据论文的主要篇幅，是提出问题和解决问题的过程。是作者理论水平和创造能力的集中体现，它决定着论文水平的高低和质量。

论文的正文一般包括三大部分：绪论、本论和结论。

绪论是论文的开头部分。主要讲清研究的动机、写作的理由、目的和意义、提出问题、概述内容、明确中心论点等。一般要求语言简洁扼要，开门见山，引人注目。也可以简要交代确定选题的过程和有关背景材料，目的是为了使读者更好地了解全文的旨要。

本论是论文的主体，要求以充分有力的材料阐述观点，条理要清晰，逻辑要严密，要求内容扎实、丰厚。

本论主要是展开论题，对论点进行分析论证，是表达作者的见解和研究成果的中心部分。考生在这一部分，必须根据论题的性质正面论证，或反面批驳不同的看法，或解决别人未解决的问题，或论述新思想新发现等。在该部分中论证是极其重要的，它决定着论文的成败。

要写好这一部分应注意以下几点：1、论点是明确新颖、深刻、严肃的。论点不管是否需要论证，都必须是可以论证的。2、论点必须有材料的支撑，必须有可用来证明使其成立的材料。3、论证必须根据论题的需要选择不同的论文结构形式，不同的论证结构形式，决定了本论部分的结构。4、论证逻辑要严密。合乎逻辑的论证，别人是无法驳倒的。

结论是论文全文的总结，总体的结论，是全篇论文中分析、论证的问题综合性概括，是论文的精华所在。内容主要讲研究结果说明了什么问题、得出了什么规律，有何创新，解决了什么理论和实际问题，还存在那些不足及质疑。还可以对自己和他人在这一领域的研究进一步提出展望，以及对有关人士致谢等内容。要求结论要完整、明确，不能含糊其词、模棱两可;不能与本论相矛盾，应与绪论呼应;对成果的评价要恰如其分，不能自鸣得意或借故贬低他人;语言应简洁、干净利落。

四、论文修改、定稿

正文初稿写好以后，考生应该多修改几遍，对整篇论文逐行逐句逐段反复推敲，检查每一个具体论点、论据、论证是否恰当有力，表达是否合乎逻辑，务求不留疑点，直到确实有说服力为止。

检查并修改初稿时应注意以下几点：1、论点与论题的一贯性;2、观点与材料的统一性;3、论文的结构层次与逻辑思维的密切性;4、论文的语言表达意思的准确性;5、文章中标点符号使用的正确性;6、采用的数据、年代、人物名及地名是否准确;引用的注释、文献参考资料的列举是否真实恰当;封面署名、装订是否工整等等。

经反复多次修改的论文，应再次送达指导老师审阅认可后，以指导老师签署同意定稿字样为止，该篇论文才算是完成了.

五、毕业论文的基本格式

一篇定稿的毕业论文的基本格式是：

(一)论文标题。

(二)作者姓名。

(三)内容摘要。一般为中文摘要，如有英文要求则要附上英文摘要。摘要应该以研究目的、研究方法、研究结果和结论，围绕主题展开，明确介绍重点。一般用200-300字高度概括全篇论文的精华。

(四)关键词。又称主题词，从论文中选出用以表示全文主题内容信息的单词或术语。一般以3-8个词以显著的字体另起一行，排在摘要的左下方。

(五)正文。1、绪论;2、本论;3、结论。

(六)参考文献。在论文主体的后面列出参考文献，目的在于表明作者的科学态度和对前人劳动成果的尊重，并方便读者去查阅参考文献之前专门列出一项"致谢"。

论文的有关各部分全部誊清后还应加上封面，如指导老师有特别要求列出论文提纲的也应一并附上后并装订成册。封面按规定格式写上论文题目、主考学校、专业全称、指导老师、作者姓名、论文完成时间等。

导语：写英语作文的时候运用名言警句或者谚语会给人眼前一亮的感觉，下面是yuwenmi小编为大家整理的英语写作素材，欢迎阅读与借鉴，谢谢!

01. Practice makes perfect. 熟能生巧.

02. Time is money. 时间就是金钱

03. Easier said than done. 说来容易做来难

04. Where there is a will, there is a way. 有志者事竟成.

05. Look before you leap. 三思而后行.

06. Knowledge is power. 知识就是力量

07. God helps those who help themselves. 自助者天助.

08. Nothing is impossible to a willing heart. 心之所愿，无事不成

09. Its never too old to learn. 活到老，学到老

10. No pains, no gains. 不劳无获

11. Once in a blue moon. 千载难逢

12. To make the impossible possible. 将不可能变为可能

13. Failure is the mother of success. 失败乃成功之母

14. A friend in need is a friend indeed. 患难见真情

15. First things first. 先做重要之事

16. Great minds think alike. 英雄所见略同

17. Rome was not built in a day. 成功并非一朝一夕的事

18. All that glitters is not gold. 闪光的未必都是金子

19. East or west, home is the best. 金窝银窝不如自家草窝

20. Time and tide wait for no man. 时间不等人

Let‘s cross the bridge when we come to it.船到桥头自然直。下面是小编为你带来的初中英语写作常用谚语，欢迎阅读。

1. All roads lead to Rome.

条条大路通罗马。

2. Well begun is half done.

好的开端是成功的一半。

3. East, west, home is best.

金窝、银窝，不如自己的草窝。

4. First think, then act.

三思而后行。

5. It is never too late to mend.

亡羊补牢，犹为未晚。

6. Time is money.

时间就是金钱。

7. A friend in need is a friend indeed.

患难见真交。

8. Great hopes make great man.

远大的希望，造就伟大的人物。

9. Where there is a will, there is a way.

有志者，事竟成。

10. Stick to it, and you‘ll succeed.

只要人有恒，万事都能成。

11. Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy, and wise.

早睡早起，富裕、聪明、身体好。

12. A good medicine tastes bitter.

良药苦口。

13. It is good to learn at another man‘s cost.

前车之鉴。

14. Let‘s cross the bridge when we come to it.

船到桥头自然直。

15. No pains, no gains.

不劳则无获。

16. Nothing is difficult to the man who will try.

世上无难事，只要肯登攀。

17. Where there is life, there is hope.

生命不息，希望常在。

18. An idle youth, a needy age.

少壮不努力，老大徒伤悲。

19. A plant may produce new flowers; man is young but once.

花有重开日，人无再少年。

20. God helps those who help themselves.

自助者，天助之。

21. All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy.

只工作，不玩耍，聪明孩子也变傻。

22. Diligence is the mother of success.

勤奋是成功之母。

23. Truth is the daughter of time.

时间见真理。

24. No man is wise at all times.

智者千虑，必有一失。

25. Never put off till tomorrow what you can do today.

今天能做的事绝不要拖到明天。

26. Kill two birds with one stone.

一石双鸟。

27. Easier said than done.

说起来容易做起来难。

28. Genius is one percent inspiration and 99 percent perspiration.

天才一分来自灵感，九十九分来自勤奋。

29. He who laughs last laughs best.

谁笑在最后，谁笑得最好。

30. He who has health has hope, and he who has hope has everything.

身体健壮就有希望，有了希望就有了一切。

31. No man is born wise or learned.

人非生而知之。

32. Action speak louder than words.

事实胜于雄辩。

33. Courage and resolution are the spirit and soul of virtue.

勇敢和坚决是美德的灵魂。

34. There is no smoke without fire.

无风不起浪。

35. Many hands make light work.

人多好办事。

36. Reading makes a full man.

读书长见识。

37. Wisdom in the mind is better than money in the hand.

胸中有知识，胜于手中有金钱。

38. Seeing is believing.

百闻不如一见。

39. Money is a good servant but a bad master.

要做金钱的主人，莫作金钱的奴隶。

40. It‘s hard sailing when there is no wind.

无风难驶船。

41. The path to glory is always rugged.

通向光荣的道路常常是崎岖的。

42. Living without an aim is like sailing without a compass.

没有目标的生活如同没有罗盘的航行。

43. Quality matters more than quantity.

质重于量。

44. The on-looker sees most of the game.

旁观者清。

45. Joys shared with others are more enjoyed.

与众同乐，其乐更乐。

46. Happiness takes no account of time.

欢乐不觉日子长。

47. Time and tide waits for no man.

岁月不等人。

48. If you want knowledge, you must toil for it.

若要求知，必须刻苦。

49. Learn to walk before you run.

循序渐进。

50. From words to deeds is a great space.

言行之间，大有距离。

51. Skill and confidence are an unconquered army.

技能和信心是无敌的军队。

52. Habit is a second nature.

习惯成自然。

53. Two heads are better than one.

三个臭皮匠顶个诸葛亮。

54. Nothing is impossible to a willing mind.

世上无难事，只怕有心人。

55. You can‘t make something out of nothing.

巧妇难为无米之炊。

56. Nothing for nothing.

不费力气，一无所得。

57. He who makes no mistakes makes nothing.

不犯错误者一事无成。

58. Nothing seek, nothing find.

无所求则无所获。

59. A little of every thing is nothing in the main.

每事浅尝辄止，事事都告无成。

60. A great ship asks deep waters.

大船要走深水。

《电影剧本写作基础》的作者是美国的悉德·菲尔德(Sid Field)，这本书是电影编剧专业的必读教材，自1982年首版以来已被译成二十四种语言，为全球超过四百所大学所选用，具有极高的可读性和实用性。新版本中作者修订了大量内容，增加了一批更为当代观众所熟知且更风格化的片例。

以下是全书内容：

第一章 电影剧本是什么?

电影是一种视觉媒介，它把一个基本的故事线戏剧化了。

一部电影剧本就是一个由画面讲述出来的故事。它象名词(noun)──指的是一个人或几个人，在一个地方或几个地方，去干他或她的事情。所有的电影剧本都贯彻执行这一基本前提。一部故事片是一个视觉媒介，它是把一条基本的故事线加以戏剧化。如同所有的故事一样，它有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。

第一幕，或称开端 一个标准电影剧本的篇幅大约有120页，或长两个小时。不论你的剧本全用对话、全用描写，或两者兼有之，均可按一分钟一页来计算。

如果你去看电影，你时常会自觉或不自觉地做出判断──你是否喜爱这部影片。今后看电影时，请注意一下，你需要多长时间做出你是否喜爱这部影片的决定。一般大约十分钟左右。也就相当于你写的电影剧本的头十页。你应该及时地抓住你的读者。

第二幕，或称对抗 第二幕是你故事的主体部分。一般是在剧本的第30页至90页。它之所以称为电影剧本的对抗部分，是因为一切戏剧的基础都是冲突(conflict)。一旦你给自己的人物规定出需求(need)，亦即在剧本中他想要达到什么目的，他的目标是什么，你就可以为这一需求设置障碍(obstacles)，这样就产生了冲突。

第三幕，或称结局 第三幕通常发生在第90页至第120页之间，是故事的结局。故事是如何结束的?主人公怎么样了?他是活着还是死了?他是成功还是失败了?等等。你的故事需要有一个有力的结尾，以便使人理解并求得完整。

戏剧性结构可以被规定为：一系列互为关联的事情、情节或事件按线性安排最后导致一个戏剧性的结局。

第二章 主题

记住一个电影剧本就象名词──指的是某一个人在某一个地方去干他(她)的事情。这个人就是主人公，而干他(她)的事情就是动作(action)。当我们谈论电影剧本的主题时，我们实际谈的是剧本中的动作和人物。

动作就是发生了什么事情，而人物，就是遇到这件事情的人。每个电影剧本都把动作和人物加以戏剧化了。

每个电影剧本都有个主题。

剧作家在决定如何把故事戏剧化时，常常要进行选择和履行责任。

你的主题会找到你的，只要你设法去发现它。

从寻找一个动作和一个人物开始做起!

下一步是扩展你的主题。赋予剧本中的动作以血肉，把焦点集中在剧中人物身上，这样就扩展了故事线和突出了细节。

这条规则值得再重复一遍：你知道的越多，你所能传达的也越多。

调查研究工作是电影剧本写作的具体要素。

动笔时，先问一下自己要写的是什么故事。

当你一旦决定想要写哪一种动作之后，就可以进而考虑剧中人物了。首先，要明确你的人物的需求(need)。一切戏剧都是冲突。如果你已经清楚自己人物的需求，那就可以设置达到这一需求而要克服的种种障碍。他如何克服这些障碍就成了你的故事本身。冲突、斗争、克服障碍这就是一切戏剧的基本成分。喜剧，亦是如此。剧作家的责任就是创造足够的冲突去使你的观众或读者发生兴趣。故事始终要不断向前发展，直至它的解决。上述就是你对主题应该了解的一切。如果你已经清楚了自己电影剧本中的动作和人物，你就可以为你的人物规定需要，然后为实现这一需求设置种种障碍。

没有冲突就没有戏剧。没有需求，就没有人物。没有人物也就没有动作。

一个人的行为而不是他的言谈，表明了他是一个什么样的人。当你着手探索主题时，你会发现你剧本中的一切事情都是互为关联的。没有一件事是偶然纳入的，或仅因为它机智可爱而被纳入的。莎土比亚有句名言：“即便一只麻雀的死，亦有特殊的天意。”而宇宙的自然法则是：每一个作用力都有一个力量相等方向相反的反作用力。这一法则也适用于你的故事。这就是你电影剧本的主题。

要了解你的主题!

第三章 人物

人物是你电影剧本的根本基础，它是你故事的心脏、灵魂和神经系统。在动笔之前，你必须了解你的人物。

首先，确定你的主要人物。然后，把他(她)生活的内容分成两个基本范畴：内在的生活与外在的生活。

要从内在的生活开始。

写作要具备不断向自己提出问题并且找到答案的能力。这就是为什么我把发展人物称之为创造性的研究工作。

人物的外在的部分发生在电影剧本的开始到最后的淡出之间。首先，要逐个分析他们生活的各种因素或各个组成部分。你应该通过人物与其他人或事件的关系来创造你的人物。所有的戏剧性人物都在三个方面相互作用：

1)在争取他们的戏剧性需求过程中所经历的冲突。

2)他们与其他人物之间的相互作用，是敌对的、友好的，抑或是冷漠的。请记住：戏剧就是冲突。法国著名的电影导演让·雷诺阿(Jean Renoir)曾跟我说过:描写一个混蛋比描写一个好小伙子更有戏剧性效果。

3)他们内在的相互作用。

把你的人物的生活分为三个基本组成部分——职业的(Professional)生活部分，个人的(Personal)生活部分，私生活(Private)的部分。

人物的实质是动作。你的人物实际上是他所做的事。电影是一种视觉媒介，剧作家的责任就是选择一个视觉形象或画面，用电影化的方式使他的人物戏剧化。

对话是人物的一种机能。在你第一稿的前六十页之中会到处出现别扭的对白，这没关系。别担心这些，写到后六十页它就会流畅并起作用了。你写得越多，它就变得越容易。这时，你可以再回来把你电影剧本中前半部分的对话修改顺畅。

对话是和你人物的需求、他的希望与梦想相互联系的。对话必须把你故事的信息或事实传达给观众。它必须推动故事向前发展。它必须提示人物。对话必须展现人物之间和人物内部的矛盾冲突，以及展现人物的感情状况和性格的独特之处。对话来自于人物。

第四章 构成人物

你如何给你的人物“注入生命”?如何去构成你的人物呢?

关键的词是“过程”。需要一种途径去实现它。

首先，要创作人物的来龙去脉(context)。然后把内容注入其中。确定人物的需求。

人物就是观点——即我们看待世界的方式。这是一种来龙去脉。

我们都具有某种观点——要保证你的人物具有个人的和独特的观点。你创造了来龙去脉，内容就随之而来了。

人物还是一种态度。这也是一种来龙去脉，是展现人物观点的一种感情和行动的方式。

你越能清楚地确定人物的需求，就越容易给这些需求制造障碍。这样就产生了冲突。这有助于你创作一条紧张而富于戏剧性的故事线索。这在喜剧中也是一条卓有成效的规律。

确定人物的需求，然后针对这一需求制造障碍。你对你的人物知道得越多，在故事结构中创作的尺度就越宽。

人物还是个性。每个人物从视觉上都显示出一种个性。

人物还是行为。人物的实质就是动作——什么样的人干什么事。行为是动作。行为向你揭示很多东西。

人物还是我所谓的启示。在故事进程中我们了解到人物的一些事情。

动作即是人物!一个人的所为，而不是他的言谈，表明他是一个什么样的人。

作家常常在一个作品接近完成时，坚持写下去而没有写完。

只是别指望你的人物从第一页就开始跟你讲话。这样是行不通的。如果你作了创造性的研究工作，并熟知你的人物，那么你就会体验到某些阻力，然后才能有所突破，和你的人物发生接触。你的全部工作、研究、准备工作和思考时间的最后结果将是那些真实、生动、可信的人物——真实环境中的真实人物。这是我们共同的目的。

第五章 创造人物

写剧本有两种办法。一种是先有了想法，然后按照这种想法去创造人物。写剧本的另一种办法是创作一个人物;从人物身上会产生出需求、动作和故事。

要记住，剧本的主题是动作和人物。我们已经有了人物了，现在该去找动作了。这是一个漫无目的的创作过程。我们提出一些想法，做出修改，重新安排，也犯错误。我刚说了一件事，接着又反驳了自己。不要着急。我们在寻找一个特定的结果——一个故事。我们必须使自己“找到”它。

要记住，这是一个创作过程，混乱和自相矛盾是在所难免的。

情节点。要记住，它必须是一个能“钩”住动作转向另一方向的事变或事件。

第六章 结尾与开端

方向!──对，正是它!你的故事是从A向前发展到Z;从建置发展到结局。请记住，电影剧本结构的定义是：一系列互为关联的事情、情节和事件按线性安排，最后导致戏剧性的结局。这就意味着你的故事是从开端向前发展到结尾。你应该用10页(10分钟)向你的观众或读者介绍三件事：⒈谁是你的主要人物?⒉戏剧性的前提是什么──亦即故事讲的是什么?⒊戏剧性情境是什么──意即围绕你故事的戏剧性情况是什么?

很多人不相信，动笔写剧本前需要一个结尾!我听到多少次论证、争论等等。

当你开始动笔时，你必须知道的第一件事就是结尾。

你的故事总要向前发展──它沿着一条途径、一个方向、一条发展线，从开端到结尾。方向就是一条发展线，一路上遇到一些事情的途径。知道你的结尾。你不必知道具体的细节，但是你必须知道结尾发生了什么事。

你的故事就象是一次旅行，结尾就是目的地。二者是联成一体的。凯特·斯蒂汶斯在他的歌《就座》中概括了这一点：“生活就象多重门的迷宫。扇扇门都得往里推才打得开。伙计，你就只管推门而进，不论你怎样走，你都可能绕回到开始的地方。”

中国有句成语：“千里之行，始于足下。”

结尾与开端是相互联结的，这一原则可适用于电影剧本。

所以一个结尾始终是一个开端，而另一个开端也就是另一个结尾。如同生活一样，电影剧本中的每一件事都是相互关联的。

结尾和开端犹如一枚银币的两面。一定要仔细地选择，从而戏剧化地构成你的结尾。

当你知道了你的结尾.你可以有效地选择你的开端。

如果你已经决定了结尾，你可以选择一个事情或事件能引导到影片结尾。

一种类型的开端，可以是视觉感染力很强、很令人兴奋的进程，它能一下子抓住观众;另一种类型的开端，可以以一种速度极快的解说式的镜头去建置剧中的人物。你的故事决定了你去选择哪种类型的开端。

在什么地方出现片头字幕，这是个由电影片决定，不是由你剧作者决定的事。决定在什么地方出现字幕是一部电影制片时最后的事情，是由电影剪缉和导演来决定的。

你的电影剧本一开始的前十页是最为重要的。在这十页之内，一个读者将要知道你的故事是否引人入胜，它是不是开始布局了。这正是读者的工作。

对卖给好莱坞的电影剧本设有一个专门阅读剧本的人(reader)。在好莱坞那里，没有人读剧本，制片人不读，只有专门阅读剧本的人读。

对编剧人员来说，看电影是最重要的事情。去看各种各样的电影：好的影片、坏的影片、外国影片、老影片和新影片等等。你从看的每一部影片中都能获得经验，如果认真地看，它就会帮助你逐渐地对电影剧本有越来越深入的了解。看一部影片应该象参加一次工作会议，要去谈，去讨论它，并且看看它是否和哪个示例相吻合。

对一部结构很好的影片说来，结尾和开端是最重要的。所以，写电影剧本的开端的最好方法是什么?那就是：要清楚知道你的结尾!

第七章 建置

电影剧本中的一切都是互相夫联的，所以从一开始就要介绍你故事的组成部分，这一点是首要的。你有十页的篇幅去抓住或钩住你的读者，这样一来，你就必须立刻建置你的故事。

你必须以视觉的方式把故事中的信息建置起来。读者必须知道：谁是主人公，故事的戏剧前提是什么——也就是故事要讲的是什么，以及戏剧性的情境——围绕动作的境况。

第八章 段落

“协同动力学”(synergy)是对系统的研究，它研究系统作为整体而独立于它的各个工作部分时发生作用的情况。

电影剧本是由一系列的元素组成的，可以把它比作一个“系统”，即很多互相关联的独立部分有秩序地加以安排成一个统一体或整体。

电影剧本象一个系统，它由若干特定的部分组成，这些部分是由动作、人物和戏剧前提联系和统一起来的。我们是通过它能不能“发挥作用”或作用发挥到什么程度来对它加以衡量或评价的。

一个电影剧本做为一个“系统”，是由结尾、开端、情节点、镜头与特技效果、场面以及段落构成的。这些故事的诸元素由动作和人物的戏剧性推动力统一在一起，按照特殊的方式加以安排，然后从视觉上展示出来，从而创造一个整体，就是众所周知的“电影剧本”──用画面叙述的故事。

从我的角度来说，段落(scquence)①是电影剧本最重要的组成部分。它是电影剧本的骨架或脊梁骨;它把所有的东西串在一起。

段落就是：用单一的思想把一系列场面联结在一起。它是统一在单一思想下的一个单元或一个戏剧性动作的单位。

段落是电影剧本的骨架，因为它把一切都安排妥贴。你可以直接地把一些场面“串”起来或“挂”起来，从而创造成一大段戏剧性动作。

一个段落也正是这样：通过单一的思想把一系列场面联系在一起。

每一段落都有明确的开端、中段和结尾。

用单一的思想把一系列场面连结或联系在一起，并有明确的开端、中段和结尾，它就是电影剧本的一个缩影，就好比一个单细胞亦包含着一个宇宙的基本特点一样。

它是理解如何写电影剧本的重要的概念。它是电影剧本的组织框架，是形式，是基础，是蓝图。

开端，中段，结尾。

第九章 情节点

写作最困难的事是知道要写什么。当你写一个电影剧本时，你必须要知道你要写什么;你必须有一个方向──一条导致解决、结尾的发展线。如果你不这样做，那就麻烦了。那你很容易就会迷失在自己的创作的迷宫之中。

情节点，它是一个事件，它“钩住”动作，并且把它转向另一方向。

它把故事推向前进。

它们是你故事线上的锚。在你开始动笔之前，你需要知道四件事：结尾、开端、第一幕结尾的情节点，以及第二幕结尾的情节点。

掌握情节点的知识，是写电影剧本的最基本要求。要注意情节点，你们在看电影时要找出它们来，读电影剧本时要讨论它们。

每部电影都有情节点。

当你看一部影片时，确定它的情节点。

了解和掌握关于情节点，是电影剧本写作的基本要求。每一幕结尾的情节点是戏剧动作的环节;它们把一切都串在一起。它们是每一幕的路标、目的地、目标或指定点——是戏剧性动作的链条中的链环。

第十章 场面

场面是你剧本中最最重要的因素。在场面里发生某件事情──发生某些特殊的事。它是一个动作的特殊单位──是你讲故事的地方。

良好的场面产生良好的电影。当你想到一部好电影时，你记得的是场面,而不是整部影片。

你在纸上表现场面的方式最终影响着整个剧本。剧本是一个阅读的经验。

场面的目的是推动故事前进。

场面根据你的需要可长可短。

每个场面都具有两样东西──地点和时间。

场面的变换在剧本的发展中是极其重要的。一切都发生在场面中──是你用活动影像来讲故事的地方。

每个场面至少向读者或观众揭示必要的故事信息的一个因素。它很少提供更多的因素。观众接受的信息是场而的核心或目的。

一般来说，有两类场面：一类是，这里发生了某些视觉性的事情，另一类是人们之间的对话场面。大多数场面是两者的结合。

你要找出场面内的成分和元素。

当你写一个场面时，设法寻找一种与场面“反衬”的戏剧化方法。

你能驾驭你的故事，而不是让故事驾驭你。作为一名作家，你必须在场面的结构和表现中进行选择和承担责任。

寻找冲突，制造困难，尽可能多的困难。这能增加紧张性。

喜剧就是要创造一个情境，然后让人物对这个情境或相互之间做出动作和反动作。在喜剧中，你不能让你的人物故意去逗笑。他们必须相信自己所做的事，否则就会变得牵强和造作，因此也就不可笑了。

找到场面内的成分从而使场面运转起来。

一个场面很少是全部表现出来的。更经常的是表现整体中的片断。

在场面中某一特殊动作行将结束之际才进入。

第十一章 构筑剧本

每一幕都是戏剧性动作的一个单元、或组块。

在每一幕中，你都是从一幕的开端开始向这一幕结尾的情节点发展。这意味着，每一幕都有一个方向，一条从开端到情节点的发展线。而第一幕与第二幕的结尾的那两个情节点是你的目的地;它们就是你在构筑和结构你的电影剧本时，将要去的地方。

你的故事决定你需要用多少卡片。

用卡片是极好的方法。你可以用各种方式去安排场面，和重新安排，增加几张，去掉几张。它是简单、方便而有效的方法，它可以使你以最大的灵活性去建设电影剧本。

牛顿的运动第三定律吧：“对于每一个作用力，都有一个力量相等和方向相反的反作用力。”这条原则在构筑电影剧本中也起作用。

动作──反动作，这是宇宙的法则。在电影剧本之中，如果你的人物作出动作，而别人或其它物件作出的反动作是能引起你的人物再作出一个反动作。这样他一般就创作一个新的动作，而这又引起另一个反动作。

人物作出动作，有人做出反动作，动作──反动作，反动作──动作，使你的故事朝着每一幕结尾的情节点发展。

很多新手或者没有经验的剧作家总是让主人公遇到什么事，总是让他们对他们的环境作出反动作，而不是根据他们的戏剧性需求去动作。人物的实质是动作;你的人物必须采取动作，而不是反动作。

第十二章 写电影剧本

写作的最难之处在于知道要写什么。

要弄清楚这是否是你最佳的工作时间。

写作是件日复一日的差事。你要逐个镜头、逐个场景、逐页、逐日地写你的电影剧本。给自己定下目标。一天写三页是合理的和切实可行的，这大约是一天近一千字。如果你的电影剧本有120页的篇幅，每天三页、一星期工作五天。那么，完成第一稿需要多少时日呢?四十个工作日。

当你专心写作时，虽然你在外部很接近你所爱的人们，但你的思想和注意力是在千里之外了。

当你需要些时间来写电影剧本时，不必感到“内疚”。

制定个写作日程表：上午10点30分至12点，或是晚上8点至10点，或者晚9时至深夜。有了日程表,遵守纪律的“问题”就容易掌握了。

制定好写作日程表之后，你就可以工作了，在一个美好的日子里坐下来着手动笔。

出现的第一件事是什么呢?

阻力!不错，正是它。

写作是一个体验的过程，是一个学习的过程，它需要写作的技巧与协调的能力，就象学骑自行车、游泳、舞蹈或打网球一样。

当你真坐下来写的时候，又蹦出个另一个“新”的念头，如此反复不已。它是个阻力，一种思想上的开小差，一种逃避写作的方式。

我们全都是这样的。在编造出各种理由和借口不去写作这方面，我们是大师。这是创作过程中的“障碍”。

写作是日复一日的劳动，一天要两、三个小时，一星期三、四天，一天三页，一星期要写10页。一个镜头接一个镜头，一个场面接一个场面，一页接一页，一个段落接一个段落，一幕接一幕地写下去。

在写电影剧本初稿时，你要经历三个阶段。

第一阶段，是把字“写在纸上”的阶段。这时你把一切都写下来。

第二阶段。即对你所写的东西作一次冷静、严厉而客观的检查。这是电影剧本写作中的最机械、最没有灵气的阶段。

第三阶段。在这个阶段你要检查一遍你所写的东西，真正把故事写出来。你要进行加工，突出重点，进行润色，或重写一些，让它更精炼一些，使它活起来。

写电影剧本，你必须学会忍痛割爱。

坚持写，日复一日，一页复一页地写。写得越多，就越感到容易。当你几乎要完成时，也许在最后的10页—15页，你会发现你在“拖拉”。你也许会用四天时间才写一个场面，或一页稿纸，并且感到疲倦和无精打采。这是一种自然现象：你就是不想结束，不想完成它。

当它结束后，你会体验到种种情绪反应。首先，是满意和松了一口气。几天之后，你会感到消沉、压抑，不知该怎样打发时间了。你可能会贪睡，浑身没有劲儿。我把这称之为：“产后郁闷”时期。这就象生孩子一样，你花费相当长的时间致力于某件事，它成了你身体的一部分，它使你一早就醒过来，夜里睡不着，现在一切全都过去了。所以消沉和郁闷是自然的。但是，一件事情的结束总是另一件事情的开始。这不就是开端和结尾吗?

上面就是写作电影剧本的全部体验。

第十三章 剧本的形式

千万别给读稿者以口实来不读你的剧本。这就是剧本形式的问题。什么样的是专业剧本，什么样的不是。

剧本的形式是简单的。实际上它简单到大多数人都试图把它弄得复杂些。诺贝尔奖金获得者、加利福尼亚州技术研究所的物理学家理查德·费恩曼曾谈到：“自然的法则是如此简单，以至于我们必须提到科学思想的复杂性的高度之上去认识他们。”

剧作者的工作是写剧本。导演的工作是把剧本拍成影片，把纸上的字变成影片上的形象。摄影师的作用是决定场面的照明和摄影机的位置，从而以电影化的方式抓住故事。

电影是合作的媒介。人们一起工作，共同创作一部影片。

镜头就是摄影机所看到的东西。场面是由镜头组成的。是单个镜头，还是一组镜头，无论多少，还是什么样的镜头，这都无关紧要。镜头有各种各样的。

别怕犯错误。掌握它要有个过程。你写得越多就越得心应手。

从一开始就要按电影剧本的形式写。这是对你的忠告。

找出你的镜头中的主体。

术语：1、【角度对准】一个人、地点或事物(镜头的主体)。2、【主要表现】也是对人、地点、或事物。3、【另一个角度】镜头的变化。4、【更宽的角度】场面中焦点的变化。5、【新角度】另一种镜头变化，常用来“冲破纸面限制”而获得“电影化的面貌。6、【视点】一个人的视点，他看到的东西是怎样的。7、【反拍角度】视角的变化，通常与视点的镜头相反。8、【过肩镜头】通常用于视点和反拍角度镜头。一般把一个人物的肩头摆在画面的前景，他所看到的东西处在画面的后景上。画面是摄影机所看到的界限，有时称作“画框边”(frame line)。9、【运动镜头】重点在镜头的运动。10、【双人镜头】镜头的主体是两人。11、【近景】就是近：要少用，只为强调而用。12、【插入镜头】某物的近景：把不论是一份电报、报纸报道、标题、钟面、表盘或电话拨盘等镜头插入场面之中。

第十四章 改编

把一部小说、一本书、一出舞台剧或一篇文章改编成电影剧本跟创作独创的电影剧本是一样的。“进行改编”(to adapt)意味着从一种媒介改变成另一种媒介。改编(adaption)的定义是：“通过变化或调整使之更合宜或适应的一种能力”──也就是把某些事情加以变更从而在结构、功能和形式上造成变化，以便调整得更恰当。

换句话说，小说就是小说，舞台剧就是舞台剧，电影剧本就是电影剧本。把一本书改编成电影剧本，意味着把这一个(书)改变成为另一个(电影剧本)，而不是把这一个叠加在另一个之上。它不是拍成电影的小说，或者拍成电影的舞台剧。它们是两种截然不同的形式。一个是苹果，另一个是桔子。

当你改编一部小说时，你没有必要把自己仅限于忠实于原素材的地步。

T·S·艾略特有句名言:“历史不过是编造的通道。”

如果你必须增添新的场面，做就是了。如果需要的话可以加进几个事件，使得故事更加个性化，只要它们能导致准确的历史结果就行。

在电影剧本中，事实支承着故事;你甚至可以说，它们创造了这个故事。

在电影剧本写作中，你是从一般到特殊，你先找出这个故事，然后收集事实。在新闻报道写作中，你是从特殊到一般;你先收集事实，然后再找出故事。

第十五章 论合作

电影是一门合作的媒介。

电影剧作家始终在和别人合作。

剧作家们出于不同的原因而进行合作。

在合作过程中有三个基本阶段：一、建立合作的基本规则，二、写电影剧本所必须的准备工作;三、实际写作本身。这三个全是重要的。如果你决定合作，你必须睁大眼睛去这样做。

合作意味着在一起工作!

合作或任何关系的关键，就在于互通信息。你们必须相互讨论。不互通信息，就没有合作，那只能是误解和意见不一。这没有出路。

有时你不得不批评你的合作者写的东西。

“要判断别人，首先要判断自已。”你必须尊重和满怀希望地支持对方。

合作也是一次学习的经验。

合作意味着“一起工作。”

第十六章 剧本写完之后

把原稿保存起来，千万、千万不要把原稿交给任何人。

当他们读过剧本之后，倾听他们说些什么。不要为你所写的东西辩解，不要装着在洗耳恭听,而事后感到气愤或伤心，总觉得自己是对的。

向他们提出问题，追问他们。

和他们一起研究那个故事。找出他们喜欢什么，不喜欢什么，哪里打动了他们，哪里没有。

扉页就是扉页。

第十七章 作者札记

人人都是作家。

麦克唐纳公司(theMcDonaldsCo.)的海报《再接再厉》概况了它的格言：

世界上没有任何东西能代替持之以恒：才华不能代替──是常见的是失败的天才;天才也不能代替──没有成果的天才只能被当成笑料;教育也不能代替──这世界充满了受过教育的废物。只有持之以恒和决心，才能有无上的权威!

当你完成了你的电影剧本时，你已经取得了一个伟大的成就。你把一个构思，发展成一条戏剧的或喜剧的故事线，然后坐下来用几个星期或几个月把它写下来。从开始到完成，是一个满足和得到回报的体验。你做了你决心要做的事情。这是值得骄傲的!才能是天赋的，你具备它或者不具备它，但是这并不妨碍写作的体验。写作自身会给你带来报偿。要享受它。努力干吧。

OnCredit Card

At present, a wide ofcredit cards issued by major banks and shopping malls are thriving in collegesand universities across the nation, with a multitude of college students makingup a growing population of card holders. Indeed, one out of five students isestimated to be in possession of at least one credit card, and the figure isexpected to be on the steady , thelatest data published by Yangtze Evening Post suggests。

Like anything prior tothe emergence of this small piece of plastic, the increasing popularity ofcredit card on campus has both bright and dark sides. On the one hand, youngadults in college, free from the trouble of pocketing a considerable sum ofcash, could enjoy the convenience of credit cards and purchase expensive goodsby installments. On the other hand, however, the irresponsible and excessiveuse of the cards by these youngsters, the majority of whom are fresh out ofmiddle school incapable of budgeting their money, can make them heavily in debtwhich will take them years to pay off。

On my personal level,while enjoying a host of conveniences the credit card may bring, we couldntafford to ignore a fact: in most cases,parents are our sole financial sources.Instead of spending without anyrestrict, we are supposed to put studies on the top of our agenda and moveourselves beyond heavy dependence upon our parents。

高考中的写作部分既限制字数，又要包含所有要点，且不能逐条翻译。如果写作方法运动得当，会有明显的提分效果。下面来看看小编为大家带来的方法吧。

一、 从词汇入手，强化短语写作

有研究表明，词汇学习可以促进英语水平的提高(文秋方，1998)。培养和提高学生的英语写作能力应从词和句入手，抓好基础训练。英语是结构语言，具有其自身的固定搭配、习惯用语和基本句型(陈立华，2003)。而《牛津高中英语》教材大量的词汇和地道的生活语言、任务型编排体系以及文本体裁的多样性，为“写”提供了基本素材。教师可根据不同话题的写作要求，采用不同形式的方法对学生进行写作基础训练。比如：关键词和短语写作训练法，即教师根据本单元的写作话题，每天精心选择2～3个词组或句型，让学生做翻译和造句练习;一周之后，让学生运用这些词组和句型进行写作。通过这种训练方法，既可以培养学生的写作能力，又可以提高写作的效率，还可以帮助学生掌握一些习惯用语和句子结构，从而提高学生遣词造句的能力。

二、抓好基本句型的训练，促进写作

书面表达题是由许多句子组成的，句子是写文章的基础。要完成书面表达题，首先要从句子入手，指导学生如何用句子表意。从语言形态学的角度看，英语属于分析型的语言，它有较为固定的基本句型、稳定搭配、俗成短语等，要想在写作中用好它们，必须加强这方面的基本训练。

首先，要加强五种基本句型的教学训练。几乎所有的英语句型都是这五种句型的扩大、延伸或变化，因此训练学生“写”就要抓住五种基本句型，熟练掌握这五种基本句型。五种基本句型是：S+V，S+V+O，S+V+O+O，S+V+O+C，S+V+P。五种基本句型虽然能表达一定的意思，但无法比较自由地表达思想，因此还必须对学生进行扩句训练，在课堂上充分发挥学生的想象力。

其次，加强句型教学，要对一些句子进行分析，增强学生利用各种句子进行一意多种表达的训练。

最后，充分利用教材，对学生进行基本语感的训练。

三、从阅读入手，培养写作表达技巧

阅读与写作密不可分，阅读是写作的基础，是搜集素材、学习词汇句型和新颖表达方式的源泉。因此，教师应想方设法把阅读与写作结合起来，利用教材训练学生的写作技能，在阅读能力的培养过程中融入多种形式的写作技能训练，将写作教学贯穿于阅读教学中。笔者采用了如下方法：

1.利用教材，开展改写

在完成阅读教学，学生基本掌握文章内容的基础上，笔者进一步指导学生改写文章。改写要求学生注意人称、时态、直接引语、间接引语、遣词造句和谋篇布局等方面的变化，充分理解课文内容，认真思考，写出语言得体、内容完整的文章。例如：《牛津高中英语》模块6 Unit 2What Is Happiness to You?的Reading部分是一篇以对话采访形式出现的课文，在采访过程中，嘉宾Dr.Brain以体操运动员桑兰的经历为例，谈到他对幸福的理解。在完成阅读教学后，笔者要求学生用第三人称写一篇介绍桑兰的作文，并鼓励学生引用课文中描述桑兰的经典词汇和例句。如：hard?鄄working, energet?鄄ic, stay optimistic/positive, in good spir?鄄its; She was happy to devote herself to gym?鄄nastics等。通过这些训练，学生既加深了对课文的理解，又运用了所学重点词汇，同时学生的写作技能得到了实际的锻炼。

2.模仿范文，鼓励仿写

写的过程实际上是模拟读者阅读的过程;而阅读也是模拟写作的行为(戴军熔，2002)。教师可给学生一篇与书面表达体裁和题材相同的范文，让学生通过阅读完成类似话题的写作任务。例如：《牛津高中英语》模块1 Unit 3 Looking Good，Feeling Good的写作话题是保持健康。笔者从英文报刊上选择一篇有关如何科学合理地减肥、健身的报道，先让学生在课堂上进行限时阅读，然后提问学生：Which do you think is more important，looking good or feeling good? How would you keep fit?Why?等。学生通过模仿阅读材料的结构进行写作。通过阅读带动写作，由知识的输入到知识的输出，提高了学生表达的条理性和连贯性，为学生提供了写作策略和技能。

四、培养学生用英语写作的习惯

“临渊羡鱼，不如退而结网。”如果仅仅掌握了写作技巧，熟背了大量文章，不亲自动手实践还是不行的，没有一成不变的文章让你照搬。《英语课程标准》指出：基础教育阶段英语课程的总体目标是培养学生的综合语言运用能力。因此，我们要遵循“一切为了运用”的原则，提倡和鼓励学生亲自实践，动手写作，用英语给亲人、朋友、老师写信，用英语写日记，或用英语写便条，写留言短信，还可以用英语与老师谈心或反映情况，或给老师写每周情况报告或总结。只有将所学内容适时地运用于实际生活，才能内化成自己的能力。

五、重视写作的规范化训练

起始阶段的写作训练，培养学生良好的写作习惯非常重要。首先，书写和文体格式要规范。严格要求学生正确、端正、熟练地书写字母、单词和句子，注意大小写和标点符号，养成良好的书写习惯。同时对各种文体特点、格式要清楚，使学生熟悉规范的书面表达形式，用正确的标准评析和规范自己的书面表达。其次，写作过程要规范。一般来说，短文写作都要有以下步骤：审清题目要求;确定写作要点;选好动词，搭好句子骨架;有效连接，使短文结构紧凑;认真检查，保证卷面整洁。对学生进行写作模式的训练，这样看起来比较麻烦，但避免了反复，养成了好的写作习惯。

总之，随着新课改的实施和近几年高考(微博)评分标准的完善，对学生的书面表达能力提出了新的要求。作为高中英语教师，在教学中要根据不同时期学生的具体情况采取相应的教学方法，灵活多样地开展英语写作教学，有效调动学生的积极性，定能使学生厚积薄发，写出行文通顺、流畅、有文采的佳篇妙作来。

作文时我们把人物的一举一动细致描写出来，写出人物具体动作，那么所写的人物形象就会跃然纸上，活起来。那么如何写好人物的动作呢?一起来学习下吧：

一提到动作描写，肯定要准确运用动词。比方说，表示“看”这个动作的词语就有“瞄”“瞟”“盯”“瞥”“端详”等，我们在写人物动作的时候，就不能总是“我看了一眼”可以根据当时的情况，写成“我漫不经心地瞟了他一眼”或“我死死地盯着他”。这样，通过准确运用动词，就能把人物的动作写得准确、具体、鲜明。

准确运用动词，同学们都能做到。但是有些同学就会有疑问：老师，我用了动词了，为什么写出来还是不具体呢?比方说，我写“她举起了手”，可我们老师怎么还说我写的不具体呢?

妙招一：动词+修饰语的方法

这种方法很简单，就是我们在描写人物的动作的时候，首先要准确运用动词，这是基础。然后在这个动词前或后加上表示“方向”“程度”“轻重”“快慢”“数量”的词语。

如：方向+动词--他高高地举起了手;我向右侧了侧身。

轻重+动词--老师轻轻地摸了摸学生的头;他的脚重重地踢在了墙上。

快慢+动词--厨师手里的菜刀飞快地舞动着;他一下子就跳了起来。

程度+动词--爸爸狠狠地打了小明一巴掌。

动词+数量--他向前跑了几步。

以上这些类的词语可以单独用，也可以结合在一起用。大家试一试，用这样的方法写出来是不是很具体呢?

在介绍第二种方法之前，我们来做一个简单的动作--敲门，注意是“敲门”，而不是“拍门”或“推门”。这个动作看似简单，但要把它写好，其实包含着“大玄机”。什么玄机呢?这就是老师要给大家介绍的妙招二--动作拆分法。

其实，再复杂、连贯的动作，都不是一下子就能完成的，在观察和描写时，如果把动作分解成若干步骤，一步一步仔细观察，并选择恰当的动词一步一步地描写，就不难把人物动作写具体了。动作拆分法，简单来说，就是把一个大动作分成几个连贯的小动作，用慢镜头的方式一一描绘出来。我们都知道，在传统的武打动作或电视的慢镜头中，往往把一种行为分解成若干个部分，或者是把一个大动作细化为几个小动作，然后分别对每一个部分、每一个小动作按一定层次具体展示或描写，使整个动作行为栩栩如生。

运用这种动作拆分的方法，“敲门”这个简单的动作可以分解为如下几个小动作：①走到门前②停下③举起(右)手④弯曲手指⑤敲门。准确地描述出这几个连续动作，组成流畅的句子，就能具体地写出人物“敲门”的经过了。

运用这种方法，“敲门”这个大动作，我们就可以写成一段话：他穿戴整齐地来到妈妈的门前，轻轻推了一下，门紧闭着，里面似乎有亮光。他迟疑地举起了右手，想了想，慢慢弯曲食指，轻轻地敲在门上，里面没有反应，又敲了三下，仍然没有动静。他鼓起勇气，又轻轻地敲了敲，还是没有人出来开门，他一下子愣在了那里。

同学们，运用这种动作拆分的方法，我们是不是一下子就能把动作写具体了呢?希望同学们在自己的作文中也能运用这种方法，让自己的文章更加具体。

妙招三：准确运用词语

这里的“准确”，包括两层含义：一是体现人物特点，二是结合具体情境。这就要求在写人物动作的时候，避免使用那些“万能词”。什么是万能词呢?就是那些无所不能，多用途的词语。比方说下面的句子

我走到门前。

我走到妈妈面前。

我走过去。

“走”就是一个万能词，还有“看”“拿”“吃”等等。这些词用起来看似没有任何问题，可以用来写人物的动作。但是要知道，这些万能词有时却是万万不能的，因为它们不够准确。

我们都知道，世界上没有完全相同的两个人，人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份不同，他们所表现出来的行动的特点也一定是不同的。所以，在描写人物动作的时候，要充分结合人物的性别、性格、年龄、身份等，要表现出人物的特点。

例如：一个家境富裕的孩子，他是把一块钱拿在手里。而一个贫穷的孩子，他会把一块钱攥在手里。

再如：一个腼腆的人，笑的时候是“抿着嘴，嘴角微微翘起”的微笑，而一个爽朗的人笑得时候是“咧开嘴巴，露出牙齿”的开怀大笑。

第二点，人在不同情景、环境中，行动的特点更是不同的，更需要注意准确用词。

比方说，你在饭后散步时的“走”和上学要迟到时的“走”是一样的吗?肯定是不一样的。你在平时喝水时，可能是“拿起杯子，把杯子凑到嘴边，一仰脖，喝一口。”而当你渴极了或者是时间紧急的时候，你会怎样喝水呢?肯定是“一把抓过杯子，凑到嘴边，一仰脖，‘咕咚’灌下一大口”，你看，同样是你这个人，同样是喝水，因为情境不同，表现出来的动作不同，所选用的动词肯定也是不一样的。

提醒同学们一定要注意，在描写人物行动时，务求做到“准确”二字--抓住人物行动的特点写，抓住人物在特定情境中行动的特点写。这样才能把人物的动作写准确，把人物写活。

[写作基础：如何写好人物的动作

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

小升初英语写作技巧之一：用介词短语替代从句，例：

原句：While they were playing tennis， she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning. 原句：When you come to the second traffic light， turn right. 修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

小升初英语写作技巧之二：删除诸如"who is"或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语，例：

句：The novel， which is written in three parts， told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

小升初英语写作技巧之三：剔除你不需要的单词，例：

Two joint partners will present their views over a long-distance telephone call. 写完这样的句子后，你自己再读一遍，挑出单词"joint"和"telephone"，注意删去不必要的词。

博喻，顾名思义，就是用很多比喻来表达一个事物的一个特点。下面一起来看看！

博喻不同于明喻、暗喻、借喻等等各种比喻，博喻运用得当，能给人留下深刻的印象。博喻能将事物的特征或事物的内涵从不同侧面、不同角度表现出来，这是其他类型的比喻所无法达到的。

1、博喻使立意更加高深新颖。

如杜牧《李长吉歌诗叙》中“云烟绵联，不足为其态也；水之迢迢，不足为其情也；春之盎盎，不足为其和世；秋之明洁，不足为其格也”这四个比喻，分别形容女子高贵的品质、纯洁的个性、光辉的神采和美丽的容貌，具有很强的艺术效果。

2、博喻使描绘更加鲜明生动。

朱自清《荷塘月色》：“层层的叶子中间，零星地点缀着些白花，有袅娜地开着的，有羞涩地打着朵儿的；正如一粒粒的明珠，又如碧天里的星星，又如刚出浴的美人”。作者用“明珠”作比，写出淡月辉映下的荷花晶莹剔透的闪光；用“星星”作比，写出绿叶衬托下的荷花忽明忽暗的闪光；用“美人”作比，写出荷花纤尘不染的美质。这些比喻惟妙惟肖，给读者以美好的感觉。

3、博喻使说理更加具体形象。

《星星之火，可以燎原》中有这么几句：“但我所说的中国革命高潮快要到来，决不是如有些人所谓‘有到来之可能’那样完全没有行动的、可望而不可及的一种空的东西。它是站在海岸遥望海中已经看得见桅杆尖头了的一只航船，它是立于高山之巅远看东方已见光芒四射喷薄欲出的一轮红日，它是躁动于母腹中的快要成熟了的一个婴儿。”这一连三个比喻，将一个抽象的道理写得具体、生动、形象，使写景、叙事、抒情、说理紧密交融，给人留下了极为深刻的印象。

4、博喻使节奏更加强烈感人。

白居易的《琵琶行》中描写琵琶女弹奏琵琶的优美动听琴声的句子历来为人们所称道：“大弦嘈嘈如急雨，小弦切切如私语；嘈嘈切切错杂弹，大珠小珠落玉盘”。诗人用“急雨”、“私语”、“珠落玉盘”，描绘琵琶乐声的轻柔尖细、清脆圆润。这些比喻不但通俗别致，而且使句式整齐畅达，读起来琅琅上口，节奏感很强。实际上，博喻的节奏感不只限于诗句，在很多散文中也比较常见。如刘白羽先生的《长江三峡》中应用的民谣：“滟预大如马，瞿塘不可下；滟预大如鱼，瞿塘不可回；滟预大如猴，瞿塘不可游；滟预大如象，瞿塘不可上。”这首民谣也运用了博喻，有很强的节奏感。

秦牧先生说过：“美妙的譬喻简直像是一朵朵色彩瑰丽的花，照耀着文学。它又像是童话中的魔棒，碰到哪儿，哪儿就产生奇特的变化。它也像是一种什么化学药剂，把它投入浊水上面，顷刻之间，一切杂质都沉淀了，水也澄清了。”这段文字讲的是整个比喻的作用，它本身又是以博喻的形式出现的，十分精当。

[写作基础：在写作中学会运用博喻

1)主语从句

It is common knowledge that honesty is the best policy。

It is well-known that…

It is self-evident/ conceivable / obvious / apparent that…

It goes without saying that… It is universally acknowledged that…

It is / that

2)宾(表)语从句

We cannot understand why he was so cruel to his roommates。

The problem is not who will go, but who will stay。

3)定语从句(限定性和非限定性)

As is shown/ demonstrated/ illustrated/ depicted/ described…in the cartoon/ picture/ graph/ table…,

There are many reasons why I want to study in your university。

It is estimated that tens of billions of pounds is spent on cigarettes every year in our country, which is a huge waste。

4)状语从句(时间，原因，地点，条件，让步，转折等)

When the man is enjoying the cigarette, the smoke becomes a monster (怪物) which will devour him。

Whatever the reason, there are still some problems with student use of computers。

5)分词短语做定语或状语

Prof. Kang came to our university, giving us a lecture on how to acquire English better。

6)倒装句

Only through these measures can we hope to solve the problem。

Scattered around the globe are more than 100 small regions of isolated volcanic activity known to geologists as hot spots。

7)被动句

Some measures should be taken to deal with the problem。

He is said to have accomplished a lot of great deeds。

Many people believe that…(It is believed that…)

8)设问句

Do you still remember the boy who cried wolf for several times so no one would trust him?

9)比较

1.The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages。

2.The advantages of A are much greater than those of B。

3.A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that.。。

4.It is reasonable to maintain that ...but it would be foolish to claim that.。。

5.For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages。

6.Like anything else, it has its faults。

7.A and B has several points in common。

8.A bears some resemblances to B。

9.However, the same is not applicable to B。

10. A and B differ in several ways。

11. Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects。

12. People used to think ..., but things are different now。

13. The same is true of B。

14. Wondering as A is ,it has its drawbacks。

15. It is true that A ... , but the chief faults (obvious defects )are .。。

10)原因

1.A number of factors are accountable for this situation。

A number of factors might contribute to (lead to )(account for ) the phenomenon(problem)。

2. The answer to this problem involves many factors。

3. The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that.。。

4. The factors that contribute to this

5. The change in ...largely results from the fact that.。。

6. We may blame ...,but the real causes are.。。

7. Part of the explanations for it is that .。。

8. One of the most common factors (causes ) is that .。。

9. Another contributing factor (cause ) is .。。

10. Perhaps the primary factor is that …

11. But the fundamental cause is that .。。