大学生英语基础写作（精品20篇）

2005年英语考纲有重大变化，其中之一就是作文考查的变化，如何在短期内提高考研英语作文。新增加一篇小作文，使作文考查由一篇变为两篇，而原来的大作文的字数也由“不少于200字”调整为“150至200字”，满分20分。新增的作文是一篇100字左右的应用性短文，文体包括有信件、便笺、备忘录等，满分10分。既然是新增题型，就不会太难，但不好预测文体，这就要求考生复习时力求面面俱到，掌握写作规律及注意事项，尤其是对常见的应用文体如书信等

大作文的写作一般会给考生写作提纲，或图表，图画，或图文并茂。命题方式虽然多样，但题目涉及面往往是考生比较熟悉的内容，目的是测定考生语言的实际应用能力。要求表达清楚，文字连贯，中心突出，内容丰富，句式多变，句子结构和用词正确。

语言的应用能力不可能一蹴而就，必须厚积薄发，必须经过长期的实践锻炼。在提高英语写作能力方面，我觉得：一是要背大量的优秀范文，整段整篇地背，并转换为自己的语言，写作时自己能随心所欲支配。考试时避免套用以前死记硬背的几个范文，把一些不达意的词堆积在一起，没有统一性，无法很好地表现主题；二是要多动手。包括对背过的文章进行词语替换，句式转换，句子重组等，以及对某一主题展开写作。多动手才能提高笔下功夫，才能保证在考场上顺利写作。可以说背诵范文是培养语感，积累素材，掌握写作方法，动手写作是实践，是最终目的，这两者结合起来，就是“理论联系了实际”。另外，背诵范文应有针对性，写作训练也是一样，在训练中要掌握每一类型作文的写作规律，根据其每一类作文的写作特点——如提纲式作文就要求考生根据提纲提示的思路和规定的要点展开段落——全面训练，但不要带有押题的心理，靠背几篇范文就能应付考试的心态是不可取的。

下面说一下英语写作过程中的注意事项

一、认真审题

作文第一步是仔细审题，考生要仔细阅读试题要求及相关信息，如图表，图画，数字等，准确把握出题者意图。考研作文忌信手掂来，提笔就写，根本不审题，想到哪儿就写到哪儿，或完全凭自己想象编故事，置考试要求于不顾， “下笔千言，离题万里”。比如1998是一幅卡通画，老母鸡申明外加一首打油诗，讽刺一些企业把该尽职之事作为推销产品的承诺。如果考生说老母鸡很可爱，但爱自夸，然后说自己某个同学也爱自夸，这就偏离主题。2000年的作文“A Brief Histiry of World Commercial Fishing ”.它给出了两张图，从1900年的渔船和鱼量之比到1995年的渔船和鱼量之比的变化谈如何保护渔业资源，应从商业性滥捕鱼这一主题展开话题，有的考生却大谈环境污染，其它英语写作《如何在短期内提高考研英语作文》。这就偏离了主题，因为题中自始自终都没有谈到环境污染问题。

有的同学没有审题习惯，或担心时间不够草草审题，最后发现文不对题，草草收场，这就影响了英语成绩，同时也会影响后两门考试的考试心情。

二、列出提纲

考试规定的时间是很有限的，所以不能花太多时间准备一个详细的提纲，但关键词提纲或粗略提纲还是非常有必要的。对原始材料分析归纳后要形成一个基本的框架。文章打算分几段写，每段大概怎样写，自数控制在多少，开头段落是道破主题，点名要旨，引人入胜还是先给出主题一般的背景情况和对主题进行浓缩的陈述呢，中间段落和结尾有怎样写呢。这些都要心中有数。有的考生习惯用汉语构思文章，逐句翻译提纲，当碰到某个词卡住时就翻译不下去，僵在那里。要注意列提纲是为了更好更全面的表达主题。主题的表达可有多种形式，不一定非要寻找一个特定的词或句子。考试时考生要充分调动大脑，灵活运用以前所学知识。

三、开始写作

一篇文章往往由四部分组成，标题(title)，首段(opening paragraph),主体(body paragraph),结尾段( concluding paragraph)。标题要新颖，能引起读者兴趣，首段的内容根据文章的体裁而变化，比如议论文可以从一种现象，一种观点出发引出作者的观点。记叙文往往交代人物和故事背景。主体是文章的主要部分，通过合适的语篇模式表达一定的观点，考生要围绕中心按一定顺序分层次有重点的展开叙述，描写，议论。结尾段是对全文的总结，论点上要与前面的叙述一致和统一。写作时要注意以下几点。

1、要统一，连贯。

选择那些最能体现中心思想最具代表性的材料，这些材料要共同表达一致的信息。选材时切忌胡子眉毛一把抓。词语堆积，不伦不类。前后及段落之间在逻辑关系上要紧密衔接，不能把没有任何逻辑关系的词放在一起。可以用恰当的关联词把思想连贯的表达出来。

2、用词准确，语法正确

考试时要特别注意语法，此语，语气，标点符号等，为了避免太多单词拼写错误，语法错误，不要为了追求词语的华丽而堆积一些自己也没把握的单词，不要刻意追求长句而写一些自己不知对错的有多个从句组成的长句。考试时最好选择自己最有把握的词汇，短语，句式。

3、足够字数，卷面整洁

绝对不能字数不够，即使一句话颠来倒去说也要凑够字数。字数不够，即使写的非常精彩，也不能拿高分。

四、修改

英语写作时考生由于仓促，紧张等原因，很容易犯一些简单的，一眼就能发现的错误。所以考生一定要留出几分钟时间用于修改。不要大幅度进行修改，更不要因为修改破坏卷面整洁，影响阅卷老师心情。修改时可以从以下几点进行

1、语法

包括时态是否一致，主谓是否一致，名词单复数是否对应，被动主动语态是否错用等

2、词汇

包括连接上下句或段落的关联词，习惯用语，固定搭配，词类混淆，误用及物不及物动词等。

3、拼写和标点符号

通讯，是运用叙述、描写、抒情、议论等多种手法，具体、生动、形象地反映新闻事件或典型人物的一种新闻报道形式。小编收集了新闻写作基础知识：通讯，欢迎阅读。

通讯是以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，将具有新闻价值的人物或事件及时、具体、生动地予 以报道的新闻体裁。

一、通讯特点

通讯作为报刊、电台等媒体最主要的体裁之一，新闻性显然是基本的特征。而新闻性中，真 实、时效、思想性及典型意义构成了它的不同层面。就报道对象言，或是人物、事件，或是 经验、成果、工作情况、社会风貌等，都必须是真实的，不允许虚构或“合理想象”，而且 报道对象应该具有必须的思想性和典型意义。就报道时效言，通讯虽不及消息这般快速敏捷 ，有时为将人物、事件报道细致完整需时较长，但也必须及时，仍须有很强的时效概念。除 去真实、时效的新闻性特征，通讯的主要特点有：

1、生动性。

通讯尤其是人物通讯具有一定的文学色彩。消息在表达上主要 是平面的叙述，语言追求简洁 、明快、准确。通讯则较多借用文学手段，可以描写、抒情、对话，可以用比喻、象征、拟 人等修辞。因此通讯在语言和表达方法上都具有一定的文学性，它在报道真实的人和事的过 程中，善于再现情景，平添许多生动和形象，给人以立体感、现场感。

此外，通讯虽然一般以第三人称叙述为主，但在“见闻”、“采访记”一类的通讯中，也采 用第一人称。不过其中的“我”主要起见证人或采访线索的作用。在效果上第一人称的使用 也增加了一些亲切感。

2、完整性。

通讯须相对完整、具体地报道人物或事物的过程。消息侧重写 事，叙述 简明扼要，一般不展开情节。通讯可写人物也可写事件，其材料比消息丰富、全面，其容量 比消息厚实、充足。它要求详尽、具体地报告事件的经过、演绎人物的命运，充分展开情节 ，甚至描写细节和场面。这些既是生动性的表现，同时也是内容完整性、具体化的要求。

3、评论性。

通讯须运用夹叙夹议的方法对人或事作出直接的评论。消息是 以事实说话，除 述评消息一般不允许作者直接发表议论。通讯则要求在报道人物或事件的同时，表露记者的 感情与倾向。然而通讯的评论不同于议论性文体的论证，它须时时紧扣人物或事件，依傍事 实作适时的、恰到好处评价点拨。因此这是一种通过描写、叙述、抒情等表达手段进行的议 论，它的特点是以情感人，理在情中。

二、通讯种类

1、人物通讯

是以人物的思想、言行、事迹和命运为报道内容的通讯。 人物通讯并非仅仅 是“名人通讯”，报道对象的选择取决于其蕴含的新闻价值，一般来说人物必须具有先进性 或典型性。在取材上可写“全人全貌”，也可截取片断着重写人物的某个侧面或阶段。此两 类一般以人物的“行”为主，而“人物专访”则以写人物的“言”为主。通过记者的专访， 记述人物的谈话，从而揭示其精神世界。

2、事件通讯

是以具典型意义的事件为报道对象的通讯。事件通讯时效 性较强，它围绕中 心事件选材，虽不着力刻划人物，但往往通过典型事件表现一群人或一个集体。所以它通过 较为详尽地展示事件的完整过程，挖掘其意义，揭示其本质，进而反映社会风尚，弘扬时代 精神。 除人物通讯与事件通讯外，另有：“工作通讯”，这是介绍某单位先进事迹，传播其典型经 验和做法，以指导一般的通讯;“概貌通讯”，这是记述某地区、部门、行业、工程的新面 貌、新气象的通讯。报刊上常见的“见闻”、“纪行”、“巡礼”、“散记”均属此类。此 外，还有以写一段片断、一个场景、一场冲突为对象的“新闻故事”、“小通讯”之类，它 们以生动、快捷的形式宣传新人新事新风尚，实为通讯家属中不可忽视的一员。

三、通讯写作

1、关于选材与提炼主题

占有材料对通讯写作来说就是通过扎实细致的采访广泛搜集第一手材料。随后在纷繁的直接 材料中剥离出典型材料、背景材料。这些材料不仅要求真实，而且要有意义，具有典型性、 指导性，同时还要有意味，具有具体、完整、感人的生动性、情节性。在这般基础上根据深 和新的原则提炼主题，通讯才可能呼应社会关注热点，反映时代风尚特点，宣传党的路线方 针，从而以正确的舆论引导人，以先进的人物激励人，以真实的事件震撼人。然而通讯写的 是真人真事，其主题必须从实际生活中提炼而来，不能随意“拔高”，更不能虚构夸大，它 永远不能违背新闻的真实性原则。

2、关于写人

事因人生，人以事观。人与事虽不可分，但在人物通讯与事件通讯中的确有以人为主和以事 为主之别，为叙述方便故而分之。 写人在文学创作中已积累丰富经验，在“非虚构”的原则下，我们不妨可借用其多种手段， 并注意以下三个方面：第一，形与神兼备。即不仅要写出人物的行为和事迹，更要展示其精 神世界;第二，言与行统一。人物语言、行为表达、传递出人物的思想，而不同的语气、句 式、词汇及动作表情、神态等是极富个性色彩的内心表露形式。写好了人物的言与行，无疑 是写活了人;第三，画龙必须点睛。如果说言行、事例、情节勾勒出人物的整体形象称为“ 龙” ，那么揭示人物行为意义，指出人物个性特点的评点便是“睛”。“画龙”用的是纪实的叙 述、描写，“点睛”则是超脱的议论或抒情。

3、关于叙事

通讯离不开写事，事件通讯更须完整地叙述事件的起因、人员、场面、结果等，以交待事件 的复杂性和社会影响度。叙事要注意两点：第一，理清主线、丰满细节。一个新闻事件的发 生、发展过程中，有因有果，有人有事，头绪多而关系复杂，作者须理清主线，按事件原貌 将其完整地、动态地、立体地呈现给读者。而为实现这一目标，就须选择典型的细节。一篇 优秀的事件通讯，必然有几个生动感人的细节来充分展示主线，使作品丰满而具现场感。第二，时间为经、时间为纬。通讯须有一定的时间要领因为事件、故事总在于一定的时间和空间中。纺织好时空画面既是一个结构总是也是一个表达方法问题。篇幅不长而情节不太复杂的事件通讯可多运用插叙、补叙、分叙等手段，充分展开矛盾和利用背景材料，使文章有变化起伏。容量大而情节复杂的事件通讯则常常运用时空交叉方式，以时间推进、空间变换等手段来切割事件，构成若干侧面。经过作者精心的组合剪辑将事件完整而利落地报告于世。

显然选材与提炼主题是各类通讯写作中必须面对的，而写人与叙事则因通讯品种不同而有所侧重。但是通讯的写作模式也必然带来约束，因而通讯的散文化写法亦开始为人注目。所谓 的散文化倾向有以下几个特点：(一)生活面更趋广阔，(二)结构不拘一格，(三)技法更多样 化，(四)报道呈系列化。

导语：作文要有一个好的开头就不能有一个烂的结尾，小面小编给教大家如何改变小学生作文烂尾的问题。

一、首尾呼应，浑然一体

篇末点题、首尾呼应，即结尾或呼应题目，或呼应开头，这种结尾方式能使文章结构严谨，浑然一体。同时又能唤起读者心理上一种首尾圆合的美感。

二、引经据典，言简意明

选择引用与主题有密切关系的古诗文、名人名言、歌词、俗语谚语、歇后语等名言警句作总结，往往起到深化主题的作用。因为名言警句是经过实践证明了的、含义深刻动人、有很强的哲理意韵、有启示作用和教育意义的话，有的还很有文采，用来结尾，不仅让读者信服，而且在读者的心中，起到“言已尽，意无穷”的效果。

一篇优秀作文的结尾，“冰心奶奶说过’成功的花，人们只惊羡它现时的明艳;而当初的芽，却浸透了奋斗的泪泉，洒满了牺牲的血雨。‘我们每个人都渴望成功，那么我们就应该在刚刚起步的时候，用我们无悔的付出，去浇灌那刚刚萌芽的种子。”作者引用了冰心的话，再融合自己的观点，使此结尾生动而富有深意。

在此要提醒同学们的是，引用名言要恰当。名言警句是浓缩了的语言，具有深厚的文化背景和内涵，引用时不能望文生义，应做到深入理解。结合自己的感受，名言警句应是文章内容水到渠成的一个升华，将名言与自己的感悟很好地融合，从而借古说今。

三、活用修辞，妙笔生花

巧妙运用修辞手法，特别是比喻、排比、对偶、象征等结尾，会使文章文采飞扬，如明媚的春光，生动形象，不仅可以显示出作者的写作目的，还能使文章增色许多。

例如：此刻我才真正读懂巴金爷爷“让生命开花结果”的含义。“开花”是指为他人奉献。一次受伤后的救助是一朵花;一次适时的看望是一朵花;一个及时的电话是一朵花;一个亲切的微笑是一朵花……总之，每一种付出就是一朵花。上面片段一采用了比喻、排比，既增添了文采，又加深了文章的意境，在篇末揭示出文章的主旨，效果很好。

四、巧妙发问，发人深省

以发问的形式提出问题，也是一种很好的结尾方式。以反问和设问的形式接结尾，具有启发、强调、肯定、感染作用。

一篇优秀作文《适合自己的才是最好的》结尾：我们每个人不都是一道亮丽的风景么?是啊，要找到适合自己的，才能把自己变成最好的。这样的问句结尾引发读者深沉的思考，启示着人们作出正确的抉择，追求有意义的人生，引人深思，催人警醒。同学们在写作文时，要注意问句的目的是抒发真情实感，不要牵强附会。

好啦，以上就是小编介绍的几种结尾方式只是一些常用的方式，结尾的方法丰富多彩，而且各种方法并不是单一的，而是“你中有我，我中有你”，关键是要紧扣文章主旨。总之，只要同学们能够巧用神思，“豹尾”巧摆，定能产生余音绕梁之效。

散文是指以文字为创作、审美对象的文学艺术体裁，是文学中的一种体裁形式。小编收集了散文写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、精于立意

“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它，必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此，散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，锋锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意，就是使我们心灵受到触动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤动，思想的闪光。刘白羽说：“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好，这才不是一般的照相，这才是文 学。”(《早晨的太阳》序)

譬如，一个作家去看茶花，品种繁多，美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索：“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月，拿自己的汗水浇着花，象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧，终于培养出这样绝色的好花?应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀，作家十分宝贵它，就及时把这个意思记下来。后来，他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说：“这叫童子面，花期迟，刚打开骨朵，开起来颜色深红，倒是最好看的。” 并没有引起思索，但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会，恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花，这事引起了作家的注意，他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小脸，甜蜜蜜地笑着，唧唧喳喳叫个不休，心灵猛然一颤，不禁脱口说出：“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说：“真的呢，再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海，他说：“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花，岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌?”于是，作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意：歌 颂如花的祖国，歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。

二、善于构思

构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式，使思想性与艺术性达到和谐的统一。因此，构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。

第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思(思想)，并且选取了表现这一意思(思想)的材料，那么就要考虑：是写成书信体，还是写成日记体?是写成随笔，还是写成偶感?是写成游记，还是写成回忆录?是写成序或跋，还是写成读后感?确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式，形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后，你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感，你就可以写成书信;你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事，你就可以写随笔、漫录;你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后，觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人，并引起你的遐思，你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文;你如果是旧地重游，吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事，则可以偏重于回忆，写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之，要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。

第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系，我们写作者要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末，有哪些东西可以作为线索呢?一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从喜欢到厌恶，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索，才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜 蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。

二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到：今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步枪”的艰苦奋斗精神，就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事，用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的，如冰心的《樱花赞》。

三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。

四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想，“鹜趋八极，心游万仞”，“观古今于须臾，抚四海于一瞬”，“笼天地于形内，挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑 石》等。

五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。

如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。

六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写，当然，全文还有一条哲理性的思绪线索：“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。

“文无定法”，散文的线索很多，以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。

第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交融，是意和境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂，境是血肉。意高则境深，意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境，即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的，可以感受的，是物质的，形象的，但它又是动人心弦的，震颤魂魄的，是精神的，性灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色》，全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”，顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索，通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色、树影、雾气、灯光……色彩斑烂，可见可感，而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声，又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写，巧妙的譬喻，创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交融的意境。这种优美的意境，正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。

构思方法可以向前人借鉴，更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”，为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。

三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小，布局有方便的地方，但要布局得好，却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石，常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石，就很容易破坏园林之美。因此，散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林，从它精巧的建筑布局上，我们可以得到启示，可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道，苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局，讲究假山池沼的配合，讲究花草树木的映衬，讲究近景远景的层次。总之，一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在，决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说，也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称，但散文布局有时则需讲究对称，或对比。叶圣陶又说：“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么，散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性，它的局部的布 局不是同样要讲究艺术性吗?至于布局的具体方法是很多的，前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是：不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛， “卒章显其志”，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。初学散文写作，不妨学习这种布局 的方法。

四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说：“记住：越是你知道多的地方，越要不写或者写得很少;空白，这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为，“讲究了‘空白’处理，一是散文可以散起来，断续之，续断之，文能‘飞起’，神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来，古人也讲过：意在笔先，故得举止闲暇，看似胡乱说，骨子里却有分数。”(《怎样写好散文》)我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品，学习他人的断续技巧，在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然 熟能生巧。

导语：记叙文六要素一般指时间，地点，人物，事情的起因，经过，结果。

有人认为此提法不妥，一般的记叙文中经常出现时间模糊、地点不明甚至不交代的情况。其实此处的“要素”是写记叙文时必备的，孩子从小写习作必须交代清楚六要素，至于现在文学的模糊性，是一个时代的产物，可是这些基本的文体知识还是需要严格掌握的。

还有一种说法是记叙文三要素为环境，人物，主要内容下面小编就给大家整理了详细记叙文六要素。欢迎大家阅读!

作用：

第一要素是时间，年，月，日，时写清楚。

第二要素是地点，要写环境和发生事情的地点。

第三要素是人物，写事情里的人物。

第四要素是起因，为何发生这件事。

第五要素是经过，来龙去脉写清楚;

第六要素是结果，交代好结局。

大家千万要记住，文章要具体，主题才突出。

记叙顺序：顺叙，倒叙，插叙，补叙，分叙。

表达方式：叙述，描写，议论，说明，抒情。

人物描写：肖像，语言，神态，动作和心理描写。

环境描写:自然环境和社会环境描写。

记叙文的写法:

1：时间

2:地点

3:人物

4:事件与事件背景

5:反映的道理(主题)

6:自己在这个事件中的顿悟，体会，感想。

这些都同样重要，如果少了其中任意一点，就不是记叙文了。

常用修辞:

比喻

根据事物的相似点，用具体的、浅显、熟知的事物来说明抽象的、深奥的、生疏的事物，即打比方。作用：能将表达的内容说得生动具体形象，给人以鲜明深刻的印象，用浅显常见的事物对深奥生疏事物解说、帮助人深入理解。比喻的三种类型：明喻、暗喻和借喻。 明喻 甲像乙 出现 像、似的、好像、如、宛如、好比、犹如 如： 那小姑娘好像一朵花一样 暗喻 甲是乙 出现 是、成为 如：那又浓又翠的景色，简直就是一幅青山绿水画 借喻 甲代乙 不出现无知：地上射起无数的箭头，房顶上落下万千条瀑布。

拟人

把物当做人写，赋予物以人的言行或思想感情，用描写人的词来描写物。 作用：把禽兽鸟虫花草树木或其他无生命的事物当成人写，使具体事物人格化，语言生动形象。 如：桃树、杏树、梨树、你不让我，我不让你，都开满了花赶趟儿。

夸张

对事物的性质，特征等故意地夸张或缩小。 作用：提示事物本质，烘托气氛，加强渲染力，引起联想效果。 类别 特点 例句 扩大夸张 对事物形状、性质、特征、作用、程度等加以夸大柏油路晒化了，甚至铺户门前的铜牌好像也要晒化 缩小夸张 对事物形象、性质、特征、作用、程度等加以缩小 只能看到巴掌大的一块天地 超前夸张 把后出现的说成先出现，把先出现的说成后出现 她还没有端酒杯，就醉了。

排比

把结构相同或相似、语气一致，意思相关联的句子或成分排列在一起。 作用：增强语言气势，增强表达效果。 如：他们的品质是那样的纯洁和高尚，他们的意志是那样的坚韧和刚强，他们的气质是那样的淳朴和谦逊，他们的胸怀是那样的美丽和宽广。(魏巍《谁是最可爱的人》)

对偶

字数相等，结构形式相同，意义对称的一对短语或句子，表达两个相对或相近的意思。 作用：整齐匀称，节奏感强，高度概括，易于记忆，有音乐美感。 如：横眉冷对千夫指，俯首甘为孺子牛。(鲁迅《自嘲》)

反复

为了强调某个意思，表达某种感情，有意重复某个词语句子。 反复的种类：连续反复和间隔反复，连续反复中间无其他词语间隔。间隔反复中间有其他的词语。 如：山谷回音，他刚离去，他刚离去。(柯岩《周总理你在哪里》)(连续反复) 好像失了三省，党国倒愈像一个国，失了东三省谁也不想，党国倒愈像一个国。(鲁迅《“友邦惊诧”论》)(间隔反复)

设问

为了引起别人的注意，故意先提出问题，然后自己回答。 作用：提醒人们思考，有的为了突出某些内容。 如：花儿为什么这样红?首先有它的物质基础。(贾祖璋《花儿为什么这样红》)

反问

无疑无问，用疑问形式表达确定的意思，用肯定形式反问表否定，用否定形式反问表肯定。 如：我呢，我难道没有应该责备的地方吗?

引用

引用现成的话来提高语言表达效果，分直接引用和间接引用两种。 如："虚心使人进步，骄傲使落后"，我们应该记住这一真理。

借代

用相关的事物代替所要表达的事物。 借代种类：特征代事物、具体代抽象、部分代全体、整体代部分。 如：不拿群众一针一线。(《三大纪律八项注意》) 先生，给现钱，袁世凯，不行么?(叶圣陶《多收了三五斗》)

反语

用与本意相反的词语或句子表达本意，以说反话的方式加强表达效果。有的讽刺揭露，有的表示亲密友好的感情。 如：(清国留学生)也有解散辫子，盘得平的，除下帽来，油光可鉴，宛如小姑娘的发髻一般，还要将脖子扭几扭，实在标致极了。(鲁迅《藤野先生》)

对比

对比是把两种不同事物或者同一事物的两个方面，放在一起相互比较的一种修辞。 例如： 有的人活着，他已经死了;有的人死了，他还活着。(臧克家《有的人》)(编录人教版小学语文六年级上册)

运用对比，必须对所要表达的事物的矛盾本质有深刻的认识。对比的两种事物或同一事物的两个方面，应该有互相对立的关系，否则是不能构成对比的。

一、单项选择题

(1)先易后难：一些考题的答案比较容易选定，可以先从这些考题入手。平时练习时，应以基础为主，主要精力不应放在偏题、怪题上。

(2)分析考查意图、运用相关知识：应学会分析出题者考查的意图，明确相关题的测试点是什么，然后运用所学知识，进行分析、判断，再进行选择。

(3)利用暗示进行选择：注意考题涉及的语境范围。平时应注重对习惯用语表达、惯用法和中英文化差别等方面知识的积累。

(4)运用排除法：可采取语言排除、逻辑排除、语法排除或选择排除等方法。先排除较容易、较明显的错误选项，缩小范围，而后对剩余的选项进行比较分析，最后确定答案。

二、完形填空题

1、搭配判断法。

根据对以往试题的分析，搭配型考题在完形填空题中占的比例最高。搭配型问题主要测试常见搭配的熟练程度，比如说哪些词要搭配不定式、动名词或某种从句，哪些词必须与某个介词搭配。我们在复习时要特别注意短语动词和介词的固定搭配。

2、结构判断法。

结构型问题主要包括句型、句式、连接词的选择等，解题时要运用句法知识，把握关键词，从而做出迅速正确的判断。完形填空题中有很多是利用语法的正确性与逻辑的排斥性间的矛盾来设计的。因此考生应结合上下文的合理性及意义关系的逻辑性选择最佳答案。完形填空中常考的逻辑关系主要有：

(1)转折、让步关系：这种关系表明后一种观点或事实与前一种观点或事实相比有些出乎意料。

常见的表示转折、让步的词或词组有：but，still，yet，however，though，although，no matter，in spite of，anyway，even if等。

(2)因果关系：

表示原因的连词或词组有：because (of )，due to，owing to，thanks to，since，for，as等。

表示结果的词或词组有：so，therefore，then，as a result，in consequence，consequently，thus等。

(3)递进、补充关系：这种关系表示对前一事实或观点做进一步阐述。

常用的词、词组有：moreover，likewise，besides，in addition，also，too，not only…but also，apart from，what‘s more 等。

(4)对比、比较关系：对比观点或事物间的差异性，比较观点或事物间的同一性。

表示对比的词或词组有：in contrast，by contrast，on the contrary，conversely，unlike，oppositely 等。表示比较的词或词组有：like，in comparison，compare…with，as，just as等。

3、词义判断法。

词汇型问题也是完形填空的一个考点，主要测试考生在段落语篇中把握语义连贯性的能力，提供选择的词可能是近义词、近形词也可能是随意拼凑的四个选项，遇到这类题，既要联系上下文，又要具有扎实的词汇基础，有时还须根据自己的文化背景知识做出判断、选择答案。

三、阅读理解

在做阅读理解题时，除了掌握前面介绍的基本题型、基本法则外，还要进行有意识的阅读训练。提高阅读能力的训练主要可以从下面几个方面入手：词汇、方法、侧重点。

1、词汇：猜词的技巧。

在阅读过程中，不可避免地会碰到不认识的单词，考试中又不允许查词典，有些不认识的单词对文章的理解影响不大，可以忽略。但有些不认识的单词则会影响阅读者对文章理解的正确性。在这种情况下，必需猜测词的含义，这就需要利用猜词的技巧了。

最基本的猜词技巧有两种：一是根据构词法的规则猜，构词法的规则在前面的章节中已有介绍，这里就不重复了;另一种猜词的技巧是根据上下文的描述、解释、列举、比较等，运用已有的知识，分析、推断该词的含义。常用的猜词技巧可归纳为以下几种：

(1)利用词根、词缀构词法推测词义。通过构词法推测词义是最常用的方法之一。

(2)分析文中对该词的直接定义推测词义。

作者在行文中有时不得不使用某些难词、偏词，为使读者理解，作者常常会在文章中直接解释该词语。作者或通过同位语，或使用定语从句加以阐明，或用冒号、破折号、括号给出，或用语篇标志词引出，这类语篇标志词有：that is (to say); e.g.;oor，in other words;to put it in another way等。如：

She is bilingual.In other words，she speaks English and French equally well.(bilingual：会说两种语言的)。

(3)分析文中对该词的近义复述推测词义。

同一短文中前后两个句子、短语或单词通常有互释作用，可以从上下文的复述中获取与某一单词或短语相关的信息以猜测词义。如：

It is difficult t

o list all of my fathe‘s attributes because he has so many different talents and abilities.(attribute：特质;才能)

(4)分析文中对该词的对比和并列表述推测词义。

利用上下文中的对比或并列表述猜测词义是最常用、最可靠的方法。有不少句子会在上下文中给出某个生词(尤其是偏词、难词)的同义词或反义词，运用对比或并列表达对这些生词加以推测。通过了解词与词之间的连接关系，特别是一些语篇标志词，如：however;on the other hand;nevertheless等，我们不难推断这些生词的词义。如：

If you agree，write “yes”;if you dissent，write “no”。(dissent：不同意）

什么是描写?描是描绘，写是摹写。描写就是用生动形象的语言，把人物或景物的状态具体地描绘出来。这是一般记叙文和文学写作常用的表达方法。

写文章，只有通过描写，才能做到‘绘声绘色‘、‘活灵活现‘、‘栩栩如生‘、‘历历在目‘、‘维妙维肖‘。这是因为作者通过具体的形象化的语言写人、状物，把客观对象写得有声、有色、有昧、有形，使人有亲临其境、如睹其人、如闻其声、如嗅其味、如见其色、如历其事的感觉。

描写的特点有哪些呢?‘今日读者的味已经受到与阅读竞争的其他活动的影响。所有这些活动都影响到现代写作，也改变了描写的性质?‘今日读者要求动作快，甚至在描写中也是一样。……你可以注意到现代描写的如下特点：1、全文统一于一种语调、语气和气氛--描写中的所有事物都只加强一种感觉印象。任何削弱或改变这种感觉的都要删去。2、动作--现代读者拒绝在为描写而描写上花费时间。他们需要在整个描写中有行动和动作。3、许多感觉印象--作者运用词语诉诸读者的五种感觉器官，使他们‘感觉‘到作者所描述的一切……。4、活跃的、生动的图象--好的描写包含着能使你看见并深深记住的图画。‘([美]威廉•W•韦斯特《提高写作技能》)描写的作用是什么?主要是再现自然景色、事物情状，描绘人物的形貌及内心世界，使人物活动的环境具象化。

一、细描与白描

细描：使用大量生动、贴切的比喻，绚丽的文字，斑斓的色彩，进行浓笔涂沫。例如《荷塘月色》的一些段落。

白描：以质朴的文字，抓住人物或事物的特征，寥寥几笔就勾勒出人物或事物形象的写法。鲁迅在《作文秘诀》中写道：‘白描却没有秘诀。如果要说有，也不过是和障眼法反一调：有真意、去粉饰，少做作，勿卖弄而已。‘(《南腔北调集》)例如朱自清的《背影》对父亲的描写就是这样。也可以说，白描实际上是用叙述的方式进行描写。

二、静态描写与动态描写

静态描写：指平面地静止地对人物或景物进行描写。如《子夜》一开头，描写黄昏时苏州河外白渡桥的景色，就是用这种方法来表现三十年代旧上海的畸形的繁华的。

动态猫写：指以动来写静，或把物用拟人化的手法进行描写。如朱启清《绿》中所写的梅雨亭：‘这个亭踞在突出一角的岩石上，上下都空空?模?路鹨恢徊杂フ?着翼浮在天宇中一般‘。

三、人物描写?

刻划人物形象，离不开对人物的描写。丁玲说：‘有许多人物是我们大家都熟悉的。但是要把这个人物画出来，让读者认得，理解，体会，引起自然的爱憎，是需要许多手法的?

那么，有哪些人物描写的手法呢?常用的有正面描写和侧面描写两种。

首先，我们来研究正面描写。所谓正面描写，是指直接描写人物的外貌、心理和行动。

(一)外貌描写：也称肖像描写。即是对人物的外貌特征(包括人物的容貌、衣着、神情、体型、姿态等等)进行描写，以揭示人物的思想性格，表达作者的爱憎，加深读者对人物的印象。

进行外貌描写一般使用：1、简笔勾勒特征;2、运用修辞手法;3、寄托作者爱憎;4、借助他人眼睛;5、相关人物对比;6、一人几幅肖像;7、结合其它技法。

外貌描写的要求是：根据需要，抓住特征，绘形传神，刻画性格，显示灵魂。其关键在于：第一，进行肖像描写，要根据情节发展的需要去写，不能每写到人就必写人的肖像。有的作者不懂得这个道理，因而他笔下的肖像描写有时是不必要的。写肖像，不能眉毛胡子一把抓。鲁迅告诉我们，要‘画眼睛‘。‘画眼睛‘是写人物肖像的关键。鲁迅是很善于‘画眼睛‘的。他在《祝福》中14次写到样林嫂的眼睛，而每一次眼神的变化，都透露出人物当时的心理和性格的变化。需要着重指出的是：‘画眼睛‘，这是比喻的说法，并不意味着描写人物外貌非得画眼睛不可。

鲁迅所说的‘画眼睛‘的意思是：善于细致地精确地描绘人物外貌最富特征的部分，而舍弃与表现人物性格和精神面貌无关的其它东西。鲁迅写祥林嫂是‘画眼睛‘，但也写了祥林嫂‘花白的头发‘;写阿Q则着重写他头上的瘌疮疤，却比写眼睛更能表现出他的精神胜利法;写闰土，在写眼睛的同时，也写到闰土的手：‘那手也不是我所记得的红活圆实的手，却又粗又笨而且开裂，像是松树皮了。‘反映了闰土生活的艰辛和痛苦。写孔乙己却没有写眼睛，而是写他那件‘又旧又破的长衫。‘

写肖像的高要求是刻画性格、显示灵魂。鲁迅曾立志画出中国国民的‘活的灵魂‘。列夫•托尔斯泰为了写出玛丝洛娃的灵魂，勾勒出玛丝洛娃在牢中的内心世界，曾对玛丝洛娃的外貌描写修改了二十次。

第二，外貌描写切忌公式化、脸谱化。一般情况下，‘人如其面‘。然而人的内心与外貌并不总是一致的，外表漂亮不一定心灵美，而且，‘知人知面不知心‘。优秀作品中写的好人外貌不一定都是漂亮、英俊;写的坏人也并不一定都是麻子、瞎子、跛脚。如《牛虻》中的中年牛虻，就是瘸腿，面部丑陋，有刀伤痕。法捷耶夫的《毁灭》中的英雄莱奋生却矮小而背脊稍微弯曲。这都说明，作家即使描写心爱的人物也不是‘脸谱化‘地一味美化人物，而是严格地尊重生活的真实。在写批判人物时，有时常常以外形美来反衬人物的心灵丑，如《毁灭》中的反面人物美谛克，他风度翩翩，却动摇变节。《红楼梦》中的王熙风美丽俊俏，却心毒手狠。

(二)心理描写：以语言文字对人物的内心世界、思想道德品质、个性性格特征所进行的描写。

进行心理描写应注意掌握以下三个原则：

第一，写人物的心理活动，应写特定的人物在特定的环境中必然产生的心理活动，而不能为心理描而进行心理描写。如大雪寒天里，一般人想的是驱寒取暖，快出太阳;这是人本能的常态的要求。可是特定的人物在特定的环境中，就不一定如此想。?第二，写心理活动，要防止左一个心理活动，右一个心理活动。只有在关键的情节、动作、表情出现时，才伴之以心理描写。?第三，写心理活动，要努力写人物细微的感情波澜和复杂的心理变化过程。例如高尔基的《母亲》最后一章所写尼洛夫娜发现暗探时一刹那的动摇、害怕，以及内心冲突，直到坚定、沉着。

(三)行动描写：通过语言文字表现人物自身在矛盾斗争中的行动，来展示人物的性格特征和精神面貌的描写。

为什么要进行人物行动描写呢?这是因为人们的所作所为是其思胄愿竦闹苯颖硐帧T?文学作品中，人物行动描写是塑造人物的主要手段。施耐庵要塑造武松的性格，就安排了一回‘景阳岗武松打虎‘，全是写武松怎样‘打‘，从行动上描写出武松英雄的本色和武艺的高强。书中写他采取先防御、后进攻的策略，又显示出他的谋略与机智。作者正是通过对武松打虎的全过程的生动细致描写，表现了他多方面的性格特征。所以，茅盾说：‘人物的性格必须通过行动来表现。‘又说：‘既然人物的行动(作品的情节)是表现人物性格的主要手段，那么，人物性格是不是典型的，也就要取决于这些行动的有没有典型性。作者支使人物行动的时候，就要尽量剔除那些虽然生动，有趣，但并不能表现典型性格的情节?(《关于艺术的技巧》)

行动描写应掌握两个原则：一、人物性格应当从他自己的行动里流露出来;二、人物的行动应当经过选择，足以表现人物的性格。因此描写人物行动的目的就应十分明确;三、要注意人物行动的生动性和典型性。所谓生动性，指的是作者不仅要写出人物在做什么，而且要写出他怎样做。所谓典型性，则指的是作者要写出人物为什么这样做，而不那样做。

以上讲的正面描写方法，在写作时，不是机械地按照外貌描写、心理描写、行动描写三种方法进行描写的。‘人是社会诸关系的总和‘。在描写人物时，要将这些方法综合起来，灵活运用，这样才能把人物写得活灵活现，栩栩如生。

其次，在研究了正面描写之后，我们来看什么是侧面描写。所谓侧面描写是指：不从正面去描写人物，而是从对其他人物、事件的叙述和描写中渲染气氛、烘托人物的描写方法。清人毛宗岗在评《三国志演义》时，认为这部小说经常采用衬托的手法来刻划人物性格。他在‘群英会蒋干中计‘这回的评语中写道：‘文有正衬，有反衬。写鲁肃老实，以衬孔明之乖巧，为反衬也。写周瑜乖巧，以衬孔明之加倍乖巧，是正衬也。譬如写国色者，以丑女形之而美，不若以美女形之，而觉其更美;写虎将者，以懦夫形之而勇，不若以勇士形之，而觉其更勇。‘

任何事物总是相互联系着矛盾着而存在。衬托的方法正是辩证规律在艺术创造中的一种反映和应用。《艺概》的作者刘熙载说：‘正面不写写反面，本面不写写对面、旁面，须知睹影知竿乃妙。‘我国古人把这种方法称为‘反面敷粉‘。

对于正面描写和侧面描写，在具体描写人物时，也应根据主题需要，按照情节发展的具体情况，考虑是用正面描写还是用侧面描写，抑或是兼用正面描写和侧面描写。

四、环境描写

环境描写，是指对人物与之发生直接关系的那种外界条件--社会和自然的描写。

人物的活动，事件的展开，总是在一定社会环境、自然环境中进行的。‘人创造环境，同样环境也创造人。‘(马克思、恩格斯《德意志意识形态》)因此，写人记事常常需要对环境进行描写。茅盾在《关于艺术的技巧》中指出：‘人物不得不在一定的环境中活动，因此，作品中就必须写到环境。作品中的环境描写，不论是社会环境或自然环境，都不是可有可无的装饰品，而是密切地联系着人物的思想行动。‘

环境描写分为两类：

(一)自然环境描写，又称景物描写，是对人物活动的自然景物进行的描写。

景物描写的作用主要有：(l)写景衬托人物心情;(2)写景点明时令、地点;(3)写景表现人物关系;(4)写景表现人物性格。?进行景物描写，应该注意以下几点：

l、精细观察，抓住景物特征描写。只有抓住特征写风景，才能做到‘真，好让读者看完以后，闭上眼就立刻能想象出你所写的风景‘。(《契诃夫论文学》)

2、要选好写景的时机和写景的角度。契诃夫认为‘风景描写只有在适当的时候，在它能像音乐或者由音乐伴奏的朗诵，向读者传达这样那样心情的时候，才合适，才不至于把局面弄糟。‘

3、要体现地方色彩。鲁迅指导青年作者时提出：‘现在世界环境不同，艺术上也必须有地方色彩，庶不至于千篇一律。‘又说：‘地方色彩，也能增画的美和力，自己生长其地，看惯了，或者不觉得什么，但在别地方的人，雌鹄词蔷醯梅浅??匮劢纾?黾又?兜摹?‘

4、写景应渗透人物的感情。写景不应该是自然主义的纯客观的描绘。王国维在《人间词话》里把境界分为‘无我之境‘和‘有我之境‘。所谓‘有我之境‘即‘物皆著我之色彩‘，作者或人物的思想感情作用于周围的自物景物，在所写的景物上直接渗透作者的感情。

5、采用对比方法写景。如《祝福》的开头与结尾写祝福时的景色气氛，以乐景反衬祥林嫂的悲剧，更增强了作品对旧社会的批判力量。

6、采用象征手法写景。如高尔基的《海燕》，茅盾的《雷雨前》。

(二)社会环境猫写：从狭义上说，社会环境是指人物活动的处所、背景、氛围等;而从广义上说，是指一定的历史时期的社会生活、人际关系的总和。如我们写一个学生，就不能不写他所求学的社会环境：学校，学校中班级里的教师、学生及与他们的关系，有时，还要写到他的家庭、父母、亲友。

社会环境描写必须具有鲜明的时代色彩。如同是王愿坚写红军的作品，《七根火柴》的社会环境与《普通劳动者》的社会环境就不同;同是写过去与敌人斗争，以表现共产党员品质为主题的《清贫》和《生的伟大，死的光荣》，社会环境描写也各具特征。而当代的作品，更是具有鲜明的时代色彩，如不少作品进行环境描写时表现出的环保意识，就是过去时代的环境中所不可能有的。?

进行社会环境描写，要努力画好‘风俗画‘。高尔基说：‘不可忘记：除风景画之外，还有风俗画。‘例如鲁迅《风波》开头所写的江南农村晚饭时的情景，就是一幅颇具特色的风俗画。

五、物体描写

在写作中，我们既要描写人物，又要描写环境，还要描写物体，即描写各种动物、植物和各种无生命的物体--自然界客观存在的物体和人类发明、创造出来的器物、用具等。这种物体描写，也称为‘状物‘。状物是对物体的描摹，类似绘画中的‘写生‘。

状物的目的在于使读者对所描摹的物体有一个准确而鲜明的具体印象。前人对状物提出的要求是：以形写神，形神兼备。也就是说，状物要从‘摹形‘和‘传神‘两方面下功夫。

什么是‘摹形‘呢?就是要逼真地描写物体的大小、形状、颜色和质地。为了使被描摹的物体具体而形象地呈现在读者眼前，必须在‘摹形‘时注意抓住物体的特征，既抓住物体的整体特征也要抓住物体的局部特征和细节特征。为此就要认真细心地观察物体、弄清该物体与其它物体的区别，并且区分出该物体各个部分的不同之处。根据前人的经验?摹形‘要准确、生动，应注意运用数量词和方位词，进行比较，使用比喻，还可以用动态词语描写静物。

什么是‘传神‘呢?就是要描写物体内在的神态，使描摹的物体具有感染力，从而引起读者情感的共鸣，或联想，或启迪。‘传神‘要与‘形似‘结合起来，切忌外加。最好是在‘摹形‘过程中‘传神‘，当然也可以在描写的同时兼用议论，只是要适当，不可过多。

描写物体--状物应按一定的顺序进行。其顺序与观察顺序有关，与物体本身构造有关，也与主题表达的需要有关。

按观察顺序状物，通常是依据人们的观察习惯，由部分到整体，由表面到内部，或是由形状、色彩到位置、结构。按物体的构造状物，其顺序可以是由上到下、由前而后，从左至右，或由主要部分到次要部分，或由外部结构到内部结构。按主题表达需要状物，它的顺序必须与物体的主要内容相呼应，以体现物体内蕴的意义。

状物应注意艺术性，尽量写得有知识性、趣味性，以引人人胜。

关于物体的性质、功用、成因、制作过程及其用法的介绍，是另一种表达方法--说明的内容，不属于状物的范围。

描写，是用形象性的、渗透着感情的语言，用绘声绘色的手法，把人物、事物、景物的状态、神态、动态具体真切地勾画出来，使其直接诉诸读者的感觉器官，以引起某种程度的美感或快感，进而产生感情上的共鸣。

学习描写应注意以下几点：一是贴切，就是要恰如其分地描绘事物，要符合实际;二是要抓住特征，就是要抓住被描写事物区别于其他事物的特有的东西;三是要注意描写为表达中心服务，与中心无关的描写不但没有意义，还会影响中心的表现，是不可取的。成功的描写源于对生活的观察，要学好描写，首先要养成对周围的人和事物认真观察的习惯，做个有心人。有了平时丰富的积累，描写起来就会感到轻松自如了。开始练习时，以想好描写的思路为重点，词语可以朴实一些，逐渐地把重点移到词语上。

任何事情的发生都要有一定的环境，或自然环境，或社会环境。任何人物都有形象。在写文章时，首先对事情发生的环境进行描写，或对文中人物外貌的描述，都是描写式的开头方法。

教学课件是辅助教学的多媒体教具，是现代教育技术发展的产物，具有很强的时代特点，也是教育现代化的标志之一。下面是小编整理的英语写作基础教程课件，希望对你有帮助。

一、课程教学目标

本课程为高等学校英语专业课程体系中一门英语专业知识课程，属专业必修课性质。通过本课程的教学，使学生能正确理解和掌握英语写作的基础知识和技巧，例如词汇的恰当用法、英语成分与各类型结构的多样化运用等，并能按照不同要求正确书写便条、信函和通知等应用文，缩写课文内容，组织提纲并根据提纲书写短文（150单词左右），正确使用标点符号。

二、先修课的要求

本课程面向英语专业一年级学生，学生应具备基本英语写作能力，达到英语专业入学时的各项要求。

三、教学环节、内容及学时分配

Unit 1:正确用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

通过举例及练习提升学生对词汇的敏感度，学会如何正确运用词汇；写便条。

【本章重点及难点】

辨析词汇不同侧面的意义，如：denotative & connotative meanings; affective & collocative meanings.

【教学内容】

1. Denotation and connotation

2. Attitude and collocation

3. False friends

4. Subject-verb agreement

5. Note-writing

5. Follow-up exercises

Unit 2:恰当用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

学会鉴别不同文体，即正式、常用、口语和俚语，并根据不同文体使用恰当的词汇；写较为正式的便条。

【本章重点及难点】

避免中式英语

【教学内容】

1.Various styles in English

2. Chinglish

3. Writing notes to older people, strangers and business clients

5. Follow-up exercises

Unit 3:简洁精确用词

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

纠正学生习作中常见的冗余用词，帮助学生建立分类记忆词汇的习惯从而精确用词；写正式通知。

【本章重点及难点】

提高学生对词汇细微差别的敏感度，尤其是名、动、形容词，培养良好的词汇学习的习惯。

【教学内容】

1. Conciseness

2. Preciseness

3. Effectiveness

4. Modifiers and related problems

5. Informal notice

Unit 4：基本句型

【学时】 3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

通过例句比较，使学生理解并学会选择恰当的词汇作主语，避免动词的名词化倾向；明确主语通常的位置及主语后置时的影响；总结何种情况下使用主动语态或被动语态的原则；归纳一般现在时的较特殊用法及单句中时态的匹配；掌握虚拟语气的常见用法；学写正式通知。

【本章重点难点】

构建最基本句子框架；句中词序的变化对语意重心的影响。

【教学内容】

1. Subject and its position

2. Active voice & passive voice

3. Tense and sequence of tenses

5. Mood

6. Extended notice

7. Follow-up exercises

Unit 5:基本句型的扩展（一）

【学时】 3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

使学生掌握扩展基本句型的方式之一：增添修饰成分，并会正确使用七种类型的修饰语；正确使用定语从句达到强调作用；为段落缩写。

【本章重点难点】

使用修饰语扩展句子，以及修饰语的顺序。

【教学内容】

1. Attributes

2. Relative clauses

3. Incomplete sentences

4. Word order

5. Precis for short paragragh

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 6基本句型的扩展（二）

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

学会使用分词和独立主格结构来扩展句子；为较长篇章写缩写。

【本章重点难点】

复杂分词结构的使用；学会在两个或以上的动词中正确选择用作分词结构的动词；避免悬垂修饰语、连写句、连串句。

【教学内容】

1. Participles

2. Absolutes

3. Comma-split sentences

4. Fused sentences

5. Precis for longer articles

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 7连接句子的方法之一：并列

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

了解并列在单词、词组、从句和句子这四个层面的使用；学会不同类型连接词的用法；掌握并列句的具体用法和功能，以及更为复杂的并列句的使用，例如并列词的重复或缺失、用分号连接的并列句和有插入结构的并列句。

【本章重点难点】

如何正确应用并列句；错误的并列。

【教学内容】

1. Coordinate structures

2. Coordination at the sentence level

3. Functions of coordinate sentences

4. Advanced usages of coordinate sentences

5. Lack of unity & faulty parallelism

6. Follow-up exercises

Unit 8连接句子的方法之二：从属

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

辨析并列句与从属句在表达语意上的区别；正确使用名词性从句，定语从句和状语从句；理解从属句的两大功能；学写提纲。

【本章重点难点】

从属句的有效使用；从属句与并列句的选用原则。

【教学内容】

1.Subordination vs.coordination

2.Types of subordination

3.Functions of subordination

4.Effective use of subordination

5.Misplaced modifiers

6.Basic format of a short composition

7.Follow-up exercises

Unit 9句子多样化

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

使学生理解句子多样化的重要性，并从句子长度、句子结构、语意重心和句子开头这四个方面达到句子多样化的目的；正确使用倒装，避免逐字翻译；学写短文开头。

【本章重点难点】

达到句子多样化的方法；如何通过重新排序和特殊结构达到强调的目的。

【教学内容】

1. Ways to achieve sentence variety

2. Inversion & word-for-word translation

3. Introduction of a short paragraph

4. Follow-up exercises

Unit 10标点符号

【学时】3

课堂讲授学时：2

其他教学学时：1

【教学目的和要求】

理解常用标点符号的功能和用法；学写短文结尾。

【本章重点难点】

标点的用法；插入语的三种不同标点组合的区别。

【教学内容】

1.Functions of punctuation

2. How to end a sentence

3. How to join sentences of equal weight

4. How to punctuate within a sentence

5. The conclusion of a short composition

四、教学策略与方法建议

本课程采用课堂讲授和写作实践相结合的教学方式。课堂讲授使用多媒体教学，由教师讲解写作技巧引导学生发现使用规律，结合小组活动和个人训练等各种形式提高学生的写作学习热情。在课外布置适量的写作任务，及时操练和巩固所学的写作知识和写作技巧，加强对语言的实际运用能力。

五、教材与学习资源

本课程教材为邹申主编的《写作教程（第一册）》，上海：上海外语教育出版社，2005。

The Spring Festival, the most important festival to Chinese. Is China the biggest, the most lively, one of the most important ancient traditional festivals, is also unique to Chinese festival.

Festival, is the beginning of the lunar calendar, another name is called New Years day, Spring Festival is the biggest, the most lively, China one of the most important ancient traditional festivals, is also unique to Chinese festival. Is the most concentrated expression of Chinese civilization. Since the western han dynasty, the custom of Spring Festival continues today. The Spring Festival, generally refers to New Years eve and the first day. But in private, in the traditional sense of the Spring Festival is from the Greek festival of the day or month, 23 or 24 people, until the fifteenth, among them with New Years eve and the first day of the first lunar month. How to celebrate this holiday, in one thousand years of history development, formed some relatively fixed customs and habits, there are a lot of handed down also. During the traditional festival, the Spring Festival of the han nationality in our country and most of ethnic minorities have to hold various celebration activities, these activities are to worship deities, worshiping ancestors, blow away the cobwebs, meet jubilee blessing, pray for good harvest as the main content. Form rich and colorful, activities with strong ethnic characteristics. On May 20, 2006, "Spring Festival" folk have been approved by the state council listed in the first batch of state-level non-material cultural heritage list.

The origin of the Spring Festival has a legend, the Chinese ancient times have a kind of call "year" monster, head long feelers, fierce abnormalities. "Year" the elder deep in the bottom of the sea, every New Years eve just climbed out, swallowed cattle damage lives. Therefore, every New Years eve that day, the people of CunCunZhaiZhai could flee to the mountains, to escape the "year" animal damage. One NianChuXi, from the village outside a begging the old man. Folks a hurried panic scene, only the east village, an old woman gave the old man some food, and urged him quickly up the hill avoid "year" beast, the old man stroked his beard say with smile: "mother-in-law if let me stay overnight in the home, I must have" years "beast." Old woman continue to persuasion, begging the old man smiling without a word. At midnight, "nian" beast into the village. It found the village atmosphere unlike previous years, village east wifes husbands family, the door stick red paper, candle lit the room. "Year" beast was a shake, long a sound. Nearly the door, hospital suddenly spread "banging spluttered" Fried sound, "nian" shuddered, again dare not go up. Originally, "year" the most afraid of red, fire and exploding. At this time, her mother-in-laws door open and saw hospital a red-robed man laughed. "Year" frightened to disgrace, mess up. The next day is the first day, the people of refuge back very surprised to see the village safe. At this point, the old woman was suddenly enlighted, quickly spoke to the fellow villagers begging the old mans promise. This matter quickly spread around the village, people know driven "years" beast approach. (the legend of hakka) from then on, every year New Years eve, families paste red couplets, firecrackers; Household candle lit, keeping stay by age. Beginning in the early morning, still walk close bunch of congratulate friends say hello. This custom spread more widely, Chinese the most solemn of the folk traditional festival.

春节，中国人最重要的节日。是中国最盛大、最热闹、最重要的一个古老传统节日，也是中国人所独有的节日。

节，是农历的岁首，春节的另一名称叫过年，是中国最盛大、最热闹、最重要的一个古老传统节日，也是中国人所独有的节日。是中华文明最集中的表现。自西汉以来，春节的习俗一直延续到今天。春节一般指除夕和正月初一。但在民间，传统意义上的春节是指从腊月初八的腊祭或腊月二十三或二十四的祭灶，一直到正月十五，其中以除夕和正月初一为高潮。如何过庆贺这个节日，在千百年的历史发展中，形成了一些较为固定的风俗习惯，有许多还相传至今。在春节这一传统节日期间，我国的汉族和大多数少数民族都有要举行各种庆祝活动，这些活动大多以祭祀神佛、祭奠祖先、除旧布新、迎禧接福、祈求丰年为主要内容。活动形式丰富多彩，带有浓郁的民族特色。2006年5月20日，“春节”民俗经国务院批准列入第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录。

春节的来历有一种传说，中国古时候有一种叫“年”的怪兽，头长触角，凶猛异常。“年”长年深居海底，每到除夕才爬上岸，吞食牲畜伤害人命。因此，每到除夕这天，村村寨寨的人们扶老携幼逃往深山，以躲避“年”兽的伤害。有一年除夕，从村外来了个乞讨的老人。乡亲们一片匆忙恐慌景象，只有村东头一位老婆婆给了老人些食物，并劝他快上山躲避“年”兽，那老人捋髯笑道：“婆婆若让我在家呆一夜，我一定把‘年’兽撵走。”老婆婆仍然继续劝说，乞讨老人笑而不语。 半夜时分，“年”兽闯进村。它发现村里气氛与往年不同：村东头老婆婆家，门贴大红纸，屋内烛火通明。“年”兽浑身一抖，怪叫了一声。将近门口时，院内突然传来“砰砰啪啪”的炸响声，“年”浑身战栗，再不敢往前凑了。原来，“年”最怕红色、火光和炸响。这时，婆婆的家门大开，只见院内一位身披红袍的老人在哈哈大笑。“年”大惊失色，狼狈逃蹿了。第二天是正月初一，避难回来的人们见村里安然无恙十分惊奇。这时，老婆婆才恍然大悟，赶忙向乡亲们述说了乞讨老人的许诺。这件事很快在周围村里传开了，人们都知道了驱赶“年”兽的办法。(客家人的传说)从此每年除夕，家家贴红对联、燃放爆竹;户户烛火通明、守更待岁。初一一大早，还要走亲串友道喜问好。这风俗越传越广，成了中国民间最隆重的传统节日。

英语写作的开头结尾是写作的重点。下面语文迷为大家带来了经典的句型，供大家阅读参考。

一.开头句型

1.As far as ...is concerned 就……而言

2.It goes without saying that... 不言而喻，...

3.It can be said with certainty that... 可以肯定地说......

4.As the proverb says， 正如谚语所说的，

5.It has to be noticed that... 它必须注意到，...

6.Its generally recognized that... 它普遍认为...

7.Its likely that ... 这可能是因为...

8.Its hardly that... 这是很难的......

9.Its hardly too much to say that... 它几乎没有太多的说…

10.What calls for special attention is that...需要特别注意的是

11.Theres no denying the fact that...毫无疑问，无可否认

12.Nothing is more important than the fact that... 没有什么比这更重要的是…

13.whats far more important is that... 更重要的是…

二.衔接句型

1.A case in point is ... 一个典型的例子是...

2.As is often the case...由于通常情况下...

3.As stated in the previous paragraph 如前段所述

4.But the problem is not so simple. Therefore 然而问题并非如此简单，所以……

5.But its a pity that... 但遗憾的是…

6.For all that...对于这一切...... In spite of the fact that...尽管事实......

7.Further, we hold opinion that... 此外，我们坚持认为，...

8.However , the difficulty lies in...然而，困难在于…

9.Similarly, we should pay attention to... 同样，我们要注意...

10.not(that)...but(that)...不是，而是

11.In view of the present station.鉴于目前形势

12.As has been mentioned above...正如上面所提到的…

13.In this respect, we may as well (say) 从这个角度上我们可以说

14.However, we have to look at the other side of the coin, that is... 然而我们还得看到事物的另一方面，即 …

三.结尾句型

1.I will conclude by saying... 最后我要说…

2.Therefore, we have the reason to believe that...因此，我们有理由相信…

3.All things considered,总而言之 It may be safely said that...它可以有把握地说......

4.Therefore, in my opinion, its more advisable...因此，在我看来，更可取的是…

5.From what has been discussed above, we may safely draw the conclusion that….通过以上讨论，我们可以得出结论…

6.The data/statistics/figures lead us to the conclusion that….通过数据我们得到的结论是，....

7.It can be concluded from the discussion that...从中我们可以得出这样的结论

8.From my point of view, it would be better if...在我看来……也许更好

我们都知道，想在小升初英语写作拿高分，就要摸透老师的喜好，引起“读者”的注意。而在写作中句子偏长恰恰会适得其反，很容易让人漏听一、两个单词，影响对整个句子的理解，所以我们要教大家一些化繁为简的技巧——

1、巧用单个词：即用一个单词代替一组意义相同的单词。比如：

用forget(忘记)代替do not remember(没有记住)

用ignore(忽视)代替do not pay attention to(不注意)

用now(现在)代替at this point in time(此时此刻)

用because(由于)代替due to the fact that(鉴于下列事实)

2、省略同义词或近义词。比如在下面例句中，形容词important(重要的)和significant(有重要意义的)，就是两个同义词(也可以说是近义词)，我们可以省略important，只保留significant。

The government project is important and significant.(这项政府计划是重要的，有重要意义。)

The government project is significant.(这项政府计划有重要意义。)

3、在不改变句子含义的前提下，省略所有可以省略的单词。比如在下面例句中，the cover of the book(书的封面)可以省略成the book cover，is red in color(是红色的)可以省略成is red。

The cover of the book is red in color.(书的封面是红色的)

The book cover is red.(书的封面是红色的)

现在我们把这三种方法结合起来，将一个冗长、绕嘴的句子，改写成一个简短、易懂的句子。

University malls must be accessible and free from congestion in order that students, faculty and employees may have unobstructed passage through those areas of the campus.(校内道路必须是便于通行的，不拥堵的，以便让学生、教师和职员能够无阻碍地通过，到达校园的各处。)

University malls must be free enough from congestion to allow people to walk through easily.(校内道路不应当拥堵，以便人们顺利通行。)

4、用介词短语替代从句。比如：

原句：While they were playing tennis, she started an argument that lasted all morning.

修改后：During tennis she started an argument that lasted all morning.

原句：When you come to the second traffic light, turn right.

修改后：At the second traffic light turn left.

5、删除诸如"who is”或"that is"之类的关系代词，变从句为短语。比如：

原句：The novel, which is written in three parts, told a story that took place in the Middle Ages.

修改后：The three-part novel told a story set in the Middle Ages.

注：把句中的"three parts"改用形容词来表达，节省了四个不必要的单词"which is written in"。我们经常可以将关系代词如"that"去掉，这只会引起最少的变动。

a businessman may be so anxious to grow rich that to this end he sacrifices health and private affections.

when at last he has become rich, no pleasure remains to him except harrying other people by exhortations to imitate his noble example.

many rich ladies, although nature has not endowed them with any spontaneous pleasure in literature or art, decide to be thought cultured, and spend boring hours learning the right thing to say about fashionable new books that are written to give delight, not to afford opportunities for dusty snobbism.

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托（正衬、反衬）

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合（以动写静）、概括与具体相结合、由远到近（或由近到远）?

十、描写（或抒情）方式：正面（又叫直接）、反面（又叫间接）

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例（或事实）论证、道理论证（有时也叫引用论证）、对比（或正反对比）论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论（可反驳论点、论据、论证）

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总；分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用；强调；特定称谓；否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

好的立意就是文章成功的一半。让我们指导学生作文前围绕上述几点来考虑主题，定能写出思想发光的好文章来。那么怎样指导学生立意呢?这里就自己作文教学的几点感悟为例谈谈。

“文以意为主”，“意”就是文章的主题。它是文章的核心与灵魂。立意是一篇文章的根本，它直接关系到文章的选材，布局，乃至文章的深度。中考作文大多是话题或材料作文，没有明确的标准，如何立意就显得至关重要了。作文有了主题思想，文章才有灵魂，选择材料，安排结构，运用语言，也才有依据。

1、正确，有针对性

一篇文章的思想内容正确与否是评价文章好坏的根本依据。话题或材料作文的立意一定要合乎题目要求，切题才算真正的正确。表达出来的思想观点和感情要健康、积极向上。此外，还要有针对性。选取人们最感兴趣的、最能反映人们思想感情的作为主题，文章才能最大限度地激起反响。

2、思想要深刻

意不仅新，还要力求深刻。这就要求我们能够透过事物的现象去挖掘其内在的本质，思考出对人生，对社会有意义和价值的东西，能在一般人认识上再进一步，能发现别人没有发现的那一点，并能给人以启示。初中学生写作，在立意上难以深入，原因往往就在于浅尝辄止，没有深入开掘。所谓开掘就是深入思索，挖出事物最本质的东西来。

3、立意要新颖

如果文章主题一般化，不新颖，大家都雷同，就难以写出好文章，所以立意要新颖。好文章的立意应该是“从意中所有，从语中所无”。也就是说，大家都有这样的想法，但是大家未能表达出来，让你给写出来了，这就是新颖，这就是独创。

立意的独创性并非凭空而来，也不可随意杜撰，它是从生活中来的。只要平时注意观察和体验周围的生活，善于从常见的事物中认识到新的东西，领略到新的涵义，写文章就能出新意。不能看到生活一点现象就拿起来涂涂抹抹，而是在观察和研究生活现象的基础上独辟蹊径，有自己独特的感受和发现。而立意做到新颖巧妙，才能在生活的激流中吸取新思想，获得新感受。

4、简明集中

就立意而言，简明、集中是对主题的要求。相反，主题分散想面面俱到，却面面不到，是立意之大忌。要做到“简明”，就需要高度的概括力。思维不进行概括，表象就无法升华为本质，认识就无法实现理性的飞跃，思想就不可能达到简明、集中了。

“简明”要求思想内容上单一集中。这样可以集中精力，写得深刻，给人以鲜明突出的印象。

[写作基础：作文怎么立意

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

同学们在习作中经常要描写景物，你你知道怎样写好写景作文吗？下面是小编为大家带来的小学生怎样写好写景作文的知识，欢迎阅读。

一、学习抓景物特点的几种方法。

同学们，地各有貌，不同的环境有不同的特点。因此，我们要仔细观察景物，抓住特点写具体，让人有身临其境之感。请看以下片断，想想作者是怎样抓住景物特点写的。

1.出示“夏日的中午，万里碧空上飘着朵朵白云。这些白云，有的几片连在一起，像海洋里翻滚着银色的浪花，像层峦叠嶂的远山，有时在一片银灰色的大云层上，又飘浮着一朵朵大小不一、形状不同的云朵儿，就像岛屿礁石上怒放的海石花。”这个片断作者是抓住了白云的形状、大小进行描写的。

2.请同学们再读以下几个片断，看看这几位作者又是怎样抓住景物特点写的？

①“这地方的火烧云变化极多，一会儿红彤彤的，一会儿金灿灿的，一会儿半紫半黄，一会儿半灰半百合色。葡萄灰，梨黄，茄子紫，这些颜色天空都有，还有些说也说不出来，见也没见过的颜色。”这个片断作者抓住了火烧云的色彩绚丽的特点进行描写的，从而反映了火烧云的美。

②“远处，几棵栎树呆立不动，一群一群的羚羊和驼鸟走来走去。一条弯弯的小河缓缓地向东南流去，岸边盛开着一簇簇美丽的鲜花。”这个片断作者抓住了栎树、羚羊、驼鸟、小河、鲜花的数量进行描写的。

③“傍晚，青蛙‘呱呱’地叫起来，啄木鸟‘笃笃’地啄着树杆。甲虫‘嗡嗡’地叫。扬科躺在河边静静地听着。”这个片断作者抓住了青蛙、啄木鸟、甲虫发出的声响进行描写，反映了小音乐家扬科对音乐的喜爱。

3.写景除了抓住景物的形状、大小、色彩、数量、声响这些方面进行描写外，还可以从那些方面抓住景物的特点进行描写呢？还可抓住景物的神韵、动态变化来写。例如

①“现在正是枝叶繁茂的时节。这棵大榕树好像在把它全部生命展示给我们看。那么多的绿叶，一簇堆在另一簇上面，不留一点缝隙。翠绿的颜色明亮地在我们眼前闪耀，似乎每一片树叶上都有一个新生命在颤动，这美丽的南国的树！”这段描写作者抓住了大榕树枝繁叶茂中所表现出的神韵进行描写，使我们感觉到她充满了生命力。

②以上描写“火烧云”的片断。作者是抓住了火烧云短时间里色彩变化多、快的特点，反映了火烧云的美、奇。

③“清晨，江面上格外平静，碧波荡漾，银光闪烁，海鸥在江面上展翅飞翔。此时，我总爱伫立在江堤上向北眺望吴淞口，那一望无际的江面，水天相连。一陈清风拂来，猛吸一口新鲜空气，顿时令人心旷神怡。江堤边的树林里，鸟儿清脆的叫声此起彼伏。一群老人在堤岸边散步，打太极拳……当阳光撒满江面的时候，江面开始沸腾了。你看，那大小船只来来往往，川流不息。机帆船的马达声、大轮船的汽笛声，江浪的撞击声交织在一起，奏响了一支雄壮的交响乐。“呜“的一声汽笛。一艘万吨轮由远而近，所到之处涌起两排巨浪，呈八字形，像两条白龙朝两面三刀岸滚来，浪花扑打在江边的岩石滩上，溅起一簇簇白花……傍晚，夕阳把江面映得通红。此时，我和小伙伴们总爱到江边的岩石堆上捉螃蜞。一个傍晚可捉二、三十只。晚上，沸腾的江面恢复了宁静。这时，停靠在码头上的万吨巨轮灯火辉煌，和天上的繁星交相辉映，把船边的江水也映红了。江风阵阵，迎面袭来，驱散了夏日的暑意。”这个片断作者抓住了江面从早到晚的变化，写出了江面特有的美景。

④我们的教室和操场中间，有一条甬道，甬道两旁是两排齐刷刷的梧桐树。春风给它满枝叶苞，点点鹅黄，片片嫩绿。夏日，一张绎叶就是一个绿色的巴掌，托着一轮骄阳。一棵树就是一把漂亮的遮阳伞，树下清风习习。梧桐美在秋天。每天中秋过后，几场秋雨。几阵秋风，把那叶子染成锈红色。此时，蓝王码电脑公司软件中心高空，秋阳淡光，梧桐白白的躯干，红红的树冠，显得分外娴静、妖娆，优雅、庄重。走在这甬道上，置身在画图中，沉浸在恬适的氛围里。不必可惜，西北风一夜刮尽树叶，那遍地铺金，不正象征这金色的丰收季节吗？冬天，梧桐粗壮的树干，光秃的枝桠，倔强地挺立在那里，顶严寒，斗风雪。看到它，缩颈袖手的人会挺起胸来，凝视它的身影，会油然而生敬意。这个片断作者抓住了梧桐树在一年四季的不同特点，反映了作者对校园梧桐树的喜爱和赞美之情。

二、总结抓景物特点，写好景物的几种方法。

同学们，以上这些片断告诉我们，要写好景物，可抓住景物的形状、大小、色彩、数量、声响、神韵、变化等这些方面进行描写。这样就可抓住景物的特征，使读者感到鲜明生动，有身临其境之感。当然，并不是在写每样景物时，都要运用以上这些描写方法，应根据所写景物的特征，有所侧重地选择景物描写方法，而且写时要展开丰富的联想。另外，还须注意描写景物也要按一定的顺序，一层一层地写。有的按景物的远近写；有的按方位写；有的按整体与局部的关系写，等等。但不能像列清单一样地把所有景物都写下来，要抓住特点，有重点地写。最后，要说的是：不管写什么景物都要写出自己的真情实感。

描写景物开头

在文章的开头，运用景物描写，为文中所写的人和事渲染环境、提供背景，能给人以美好清新的印象。写景的内容，可以是天气情况、自然风光、建筑设施，可以是动景静景、远景近景、美景劣景、大景小景等。小朋友们都爱好景物，也最喜欢写景，这种开头，会一下子抓住读者，有助于增强读者的阅读兴趣。

当然，开头运用景物描写，要注意三个方面：一是写景的文字不能过多，不能一写到景物，就没完没了，无始无终，结果，景物写了很多，显得头大身子小，文章不匀称；二是要重点突出，主要景物多写一些，次要景物点一下即可，不能样样都写，结果都没有写好；三是写景是为人和事服务的，要与文中所写的人和事有密切关联，景与人事不能脱节，更不能把景物写成了文章的累赘。

请看下面这个开头

瓦蓝瓦蓝的天，丝丝缕缕的轻云如烟般缭绕，夕阳的光辉洒满田间，万条金线接天浮动，玫瑰色的光彩，映在绿得发黑的菜上，叶面上像抹了一层油，亮闪闪的。

这段文字，是习作《路过天堂》的开头，用的全是景物描写，主要是仰视之景，夕阳下的美景，蓝天、轻云、夕照的光彩、碧绿的菜叶，渲染了美好的情境，为写“我”下文“路过天堂寨”提供了优美的环境背景。读后有身临其境之感，令人心驰神往，显然是一个好的开头。

三、景物的描写手法。

所谓描写景物，通常指描写自然景物，但也包括对社会景物即社会环境的描写。

景物描写是小学生作文的重要内容。景物描写的内容十分广泛。山川大地，风雷云电，春夏秋冬，清晨午夜……以及这些事物的交错组合就构成了景物描写的对象。写作的目的则因文而异。有的在歌颂祖国山河的壮丽，有的则借写景而抒发某种感情。

要写好景物，应该注意以下几个方面

一、抓住景物的特征。

对所写景物认真观察，抓住特点，是写好这类文章的前提。而能否抓住景物的特点，关键在于作者细心的观察，并将观察所得铭记于心。正所谓静观默察，烂熟于心。因此，要求在观察中，善于抓住不同季节、不同时间、不同地区中景物呈现出的颜色、形态、声响、气味等方面特有的变化，善手通过眼、耳、鼻、舌、身等感官去观察、体会。这样，才能抓住景物特征加以描写。为此，一要注意不同季节的特征。一年有春、夏、秋、冬四季，季节的变化会引起景物的变化。每个季节的景物都有各自的特征；二要注意时间变化的特征。有的景物在不同的时间往往各有特征。白昼、夜晚、早晨、黄昏都为景物涂上了不同的色彩；三要注意气候不同的特征。同一景物在雨中、风中、雾中、雪中所展现的景观是不同的，四要注意不同的地理特征。南方、北方、城市、乡村、高原、平地，不同的地域，有着各自不同的景物特征。

二、要选好观察的角度。

选好观察的角度，就要先确立好观察点。要根据表达的需要运用固定立足点和变换立足点观察景物的方法，或远观、或近觑、或仰视、或俯瞰。同时，要注意观察的顺序，是由近及远，还是由远而近？是由上而下，还是由下而上？这是指空间的变换。还可以时间的变化或游览的先后为顺序。这样，所描写的景物才不会杂乱无章。总之，要做多角度、多侧面的描写。

三、安排好描写的顺序。

景物描写的顺序一般分为空间顺序和时间顺序两种

空间顺序--一般是取一个固定的观察点，按照视线移动的顺序依次写出各个位置上的景物。还有一种空间顺序，不取固定的观察点，而随着观察者位置的转移来描写景物，这叫做游览顺序。

时间顺序--同一个地方在不同的时间里，其景物是有变化的，按一定的时段依次写来，可以表现出景物的丰富多姿，使人产生美的感受。时段有长短之分，长时段如春、夏、秋、冬，短时段如晨、午、暮、夜。选用哪一种时间顺序，应视描写对象的特点而定，

四、要融情于景，表达主观感受。

国学大师王国维曾断言：“一切景语皆情语”。景物是客观的，而写景之人则是有情的，作者对任何景物，总会有自己的感情。没有感情色彩的景物只不过是苍白美丽的“躯壳”，难以达到感人的目的；同时，观察、描摹景物的过程本身也是写作主观感受的过程，因此，要在写景的字里行间，自然渗透感情，寓情于景。做到情景交融，物我一体。写景贵有情，在描绘客观景物的同时，要把自己的喜怒哀乐等思想感情融注到作品中去，使读者产生共鸣，进而给读者带来愉悦之情，陶醉之情，将读者带入特定的情景之中，受到美的熏陶，获得美的享受。

五、运用动静结合的手法。

只写静景，很容易使文章呆滞，而只写动景，又可能失去稳定。只有将静态描写景物形态特征和动态描写利于传神的长处结合起来，所绘景物才会具体、生动，给读者留下深刻的印象。

描写景物需要绘形、绘色、绘声，仿佛使人看得见、摸得着、听得到，这就需要尽可能选用那些生动形象的语言。因而要善于找到最能表现景物特征的动词和一些恰当的形容词，尤其要善于运用比喻、拟人等修辞方法，但要注意不能堆砌词藻。

[写作基础：小学生怎样写好写景作文

越来越浮躁和急功近利的高中作文教学，已经迫不及待到不顾学生初中一人一事记叙为主的写作基础，下面是小编整理的中学生作文写作基础，欢迎阅征我。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金;而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进，前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

话题作文训练举隅

话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅自己的文意。

规定“题目自拟”，一定不要用话题作标题。1、标题范围尽量要小，不要太大太泛;要合理出新，不落俗套。2、标题不能过长，可以采用副标题的方式对主标题加以限制。3、标题要含蓄，把思维蕴涵于形象的标题之中。

一、LETTER(书信)

书信通常由信头、信内地址、称呼、正文、谦称和签名六个部分构成。

1.从信纸中偏右处向右写发信人的地址和写信日期。由小到大，分数行书写，同一行的两部分之间用逗号隔开。顺序为：门牌号→楼号→街名→城镇名→省名→邮政编码→国名(在寄往国外时)。美国人常采用左边开头式;英国人常采取每行逐渐向右缩进式。注意要把地址写在上面，日期写在下面，每个词的首字母要大写。日期的写法与日记中日期写法相同。

2.从信纸的左上方比信头(发信人的地址和写信日期)低1—2行处顶格写收信人姓名、地址，常采用齐头式，姓名在上，地址在下，写法同发信人地址。若是私人信函，这一部分可省略不写。

3.称呼要从信纸左边顶格写起，其位置低于信头和信内地址。对不熟悉的女性用Dear Madam，Dear Ladies，作称呼语;对不熟悉的男性用Dear Sir，Dear Sirs，作称呼语;对所熟悉的人用Dear Tom，Dear Mary，即：在Dear后直写其名作称呼语;对有地位头衔的人用“Dear+ 头衔+姓”作为称呼语，如：Dear Editor Kang，Dear Doctor Li，Dear Professor Zhao，对一般人用Dear Mr Lin，Dear Ms Li，Dear Miss Liu。即：在Dear后加尊称加姓氏作为称呼语。美国人在称呼语后用冒号，英国人用逗号。

4.正文是信的主体。一般在称呼下一行顶格写起，从第二段起，在起首处空4—6个字母的距离。书信可根据表达的需要，灵活选用时态。起首语常用：(1)Your letter came to me this afternoon.(2)Im very glad to receive your letter.(3)Your letter reached me yest erday.(4)I have the pleasure to tell you that…(5)Im glad to tell you that…(6) I was shocked to learn that…(7)Thank you for writing to me.(8)Thanks for your lett er .It was lovely to hear from you.结束语常用：(1)Please remember me to…(2)With be st wishes to your family.(3)I wish to inform you that…(4)Please write soon.(5)I m ust stop writing now，as I have rather a lot of work to do.(6)Wish you the best of s uccess.(7)Wish you the best of health.(8)Give my best wishes to …

5.结尾的谦称是在正文下面，信纸中间偏右所写的客套语。第一个字母要大写，末尾用逗号。北美洲的国家常把yours放在后边，欧洲国家常把yours放在前边。写给上级、长者、位尊者常用：Yours respectfully，Respectfully yours，Yours，Very respectfully，Yours sincerely，Sincerely yours;写给不认识的人时常用：Yours truly，Yours faithfully;写给朋友时常用：Yours lovely;Yours，Yours ever;写给亲属和挚友时常用：Your loving daughter，Your loving son，Yours，Yours affectionately.

6.签名一般写在谦称下一行偏右，使尾字母与谦称尾字母对齐。

7.范文请参阅：NMET1995书面表达;JEFCⅡ-Unit 16;SEFC1A-Unit 1。

8.书信除按以上格式书写之外，现在英美人士常把书信的六个部分，按照顺序一律从信纸左边顶格写完六个部分，且用的人越来越多。

二、DIARY(日记)

日记是用来记述一天生活中发生的重要事情及感受的文体。

1.在纸的左上角顶格写星期和日期。星期在左，常用Sunday，Monday，Tuesday，Wednesday，T hursday，Friday，Saturday。日期在右，美国人习惯上先写月，再写日，最后写年。如：October 20，1998。英国人习惯上先写日，再写月，最后写年;如：20 June 1998。

2.在纸的右上角写天气。表示天气情况时常用Bright，Clear，Sunny，Fine(晴);Cloudy(多云);Rainy(雨);Overcast(阴);Foggy(雾);Windy(风);Hot(热);Haily(冰雹);Sh ower(阵雨);Warm(暖和);Thundering(雷雨);Snowy(雪);Fog(雾)。

3.日记的小标题写在第二行，也可省略。

4.正文第一段常顶格书写，也可不顶格写。日记记述的是当天或前一天发生过的事情，所以，日记常用一般过去时写。

5.若要表达自己的感受、想法，针对某件事发表议论，进行说理，或者为了抒情、描景写人生动，则用一般现在时。

6.范文请参阅：JEFCⅡ-Unit 27;SEFC1A-Unit 14;SEFC1A《同步听力》p.49;NMET1992和N MET1998书面表达;JEFCⅢ-Unit 23。

三、CARDS OF CONGRATULATION(贺卡)

贺卡是逢年过节，向亲朋好友表示祝贺的最方便的方式。贺卡可分为圣诞卡、贺年卡、教师节贺卡及纪念日卡等等，写法格式通常有两种。一种由称呼、贺词、祝贺人签名三部分构成 ，另一种用短信代替卡片。

1.称呼是指祝贺人对受贺人的称呼，一般从卡片的左上方写起。常用：To dear+受贺人称谓，To+受贺人称谓，也可以省略前边的to，称呼后用逗号。如：To dear teacher，Mr and Mrs Mike

2.贺词是向受贺人表达良好祝愿的话。一般写在称呼下一行，句首可与称呼语齐头，也可以向右空出4—6个字母。写贺年片时常用：(1)May the New Year be a happy one for you all!(2)Best wishes to the four of you for a prosperous and Happy New Year!(3)Happy New Year to you!(4)A Happy New Year!(5)Wish to see more of you next year!(6)Best wishes for a bright New Year!(7)Youll have a very Happy New Year!(8)Let me wish you and your family a Happy and Healthy New Year!(9)I do hope this finds you well with a Happy New Year ahead!(10)I wish you the Happiest Possible New Year!写教师节贺卡时常用：(1)Happy Teachers Day!(2)Good Luck!(3)Best wishes!(4)We hope youll have a very happy year in our class.(5)Thank you for teaching us so well.(6)With our best wishes for TeachersDay.(7)Hope you are having a very Pleasant Day.(8)Hope it will bring you Good Health and Happiness.(9)I am thinking of you often.(10)All my family joins me in wishing you health and happiness.写圣诞卡时常用：(1)A Merry Christmas!(2)I wish you a Merry Christmas!(3)Hope you have a very Good Christmas!( 4)May this Christmas be your Merriest!(5)We send our love to all of you and the hope that youll have a Merry Christmas!(6)Hope youll have a very merry Christmas!( 7) Merry Christmas!(8)A merry Christmas to you.(9)A Merry Christmas and a Happy New Year!(10)Best wishes to you for a Prosperous and Merry Christmas!写生日贺卡时常用：(1)Happy birthday to you!(2)Happy birthday!(3)With Best Wishes for a Happy Brithday!

3.祝贺人签名一般写在贺卡的右下方，把from常常加在姓名前，也可以省略from。如：From your student Liu Zhong，From Mr and Mrs White，Your loving son Lei，Your students，

4.贺卡也可以用短信形式书写，在逢年过节或者特别纪念日，把贺词连同你的近况等写成短信，寄给亲朋好友。

范文请参阅：JEFCⅠ-99;JEFCⅢ-Unit 1;JEFCⅢp.97。

四、NOTICE(通知)

通知又称通告或布告，是上级对下级、组织对成员部署工作、传达事情、召开会议所使用的一种文体。

1.通知的第一行正中写发出通知的单位名称，发出通知的单位名称还可以写在正文下方的右侧，也可以把单位省略不写。

2.把NOTICE写在正文上方正中的位置。

3.正文是通知的内容，是通知的主体。要简明扼要地把通知的对象、事由、时间、地点及内容写清楚，语言应简洁明了，条理清晰，要求明确，常用一般现在时和一般将来时写。

4.在正文下方的左侧写出通知的日期，日期也可省略不写。

5.广播通知和口头通知，在开头要用称呼语，常用的称呼语有：(1)Boys and Girls，(2)De ar friends，(3)Ladies，(4)Dear ladies，(5)Gentlmen，(6)Ladies and gentlmen，(7)Comrades，常把称呼语从左侧顶格书写，在后面用逗号或冒号。

6.常用的正文开头用语有：(1)May I have your attention，please?(2)Attention，please !I have something to tell you.(3)Attention，please!I have an announcement to make.(4)Attention，please!I have good news for you all.(5)Attention please，everyone!

7.常用的正文结尾用语有：(1)Thats all!Thank you!(2)Please be there on time.(3)E ver yone is welcome.(4)Dont be late，will you?(5)Thank you for your attention.(6)Don t be late!(7)Dont forget，will you?(8)We must get there on time.(9)I hope all of you will have a good time.

8.在正文中常用的句式有：(1)It has been decided that well visit…(2)We have dec ided that well pay a visit to…(3)Well have a talk from…to…(4)Professor Liu will give us a talk on…(5)The football star will give us a lecture on…(6)You are r equired to come on time.(7)A lecture will be given by….(8)There will be a visit to …(9)A talk will be given by…(10)I’m sure well learn a lot of things from it. (11)It will be given in…(12)Youd better take your valuables with you.

9.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 6;NMET1989高考书面表达答案;NMET1994高考书面表达答案。

五、MESSAGE(留言条)

留言条是转达事情所使用的一种便条。

1.若拿起电话听筒，对方要找的人未在场时，你可以签写一张留言条。正中上方写TELEPHONE MESSAGE，在左边的“From”：后签对方的姓名，在右边的“To”：后签要找的人的姓名，在左边的 “Date”：后写接电话的日期，在右边的“Time”：后写接电话的时间。在“Message”：后写所要通知的事情，这部分是主体，写清人物、时间、地点和事由。在右下边的Signature：后签写留言条人的姓名。

2.留言条也可以把“FROM：”、“TO：”、“DATE：”、“MESSAGE：”按顺序从上到下顶格齐头排列，把“TIME：”写在“DATE：”的后边，省略“SIGNATURE：”。

3.在MESSAGE：后常写的句式有：(1)He wants to see you as soon as possible.(2)He w ould like to meet you…(3)Be sure to call…(4)She wants to meet…

4.若要找某人安排工作、通知会议等，当要找的人不在时，写一张内容简短的书信，右上边写日期，第二行从左边顶格写称呼，第三行从左边起写正文，在正文右下方签名。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 10。

六、WRITTEN REQUEST FOR LEAVE(请假条)

请假条是日常生活和工作中，临时遇到一些事情或因生病等需要请假，给主管部门的负责人所写的简便字据。格式与书信格式大致相同，在纸的第一行右边写请假日期，在第二行左边顶格写称呼语，称呼语后用逗号。在第三行左边起首处空4—6个字母的距离，开始写正文。内容、事由、时间写清就行。在正文下偏右处写谦称，在谦称下写姓名。

1.写请假条时常用语有：(1)Im sorry I cant come to school because…(2)My grandm ot her is seriously ill. There is no one at home…(3)I have got a high fever and cough badly…(4)Im writing to ask for sick leave of one day.(5)I cant go to school be cause I have got a cold.(6)Please give an extension of leave for two days.(7)I have to go to Xian tomorrow because…(8)I have got things to do this afternoon.Im writing to ask for leave…(9)I want to ask for…leave.

2.若请病假，常在假条后附医生建议书。

七、POSTAL TELEGRAM(电报)

电报是与外地进行紧急通讯交流的有效手段，是准确传递信息的有效途径，是一种对文字力求精炼、准确与简明的文体。

1.正上方的空白栏由邮局营业员填写。如：报费、流水号码、记账号码、原来号码、发出时间、营业员、值机员、报类、字数、发出局名和日期时间。

2.电文第一行在左边顶格写称呼，常直呼其名，一般要大写，不要标点符号。

3.电文第二行和第三行写收报人的地址。

4.从第四行左边顶格写正文，正文全文都用大写字母，有时也可以把各词的第一个字母大写。一般只写实词，虚词常常省略。电文控制在10个字以内最为节约。

5.电文中常用动词不定式表示要求对方行动，用现在分词表示自己的行为。

6.常用电文有：(1)Send Money Soon〈速汇款〉(2)Arriving Home Safely(3)Best Wishes on Your Birthday〈谨贺生日愉快〉(4)Mother Illness Critical Return Soonest〈母病危速归〉(5)Unable Return Sunday Giving Date Later(6)Urgent Business Return Immediately(7)Send if Found Bag(8)Why Unmoney(9)Arriving 9∶00 Morning Can You Meet(10)Express Sorrow For Your Mothers Death〈惊闻令堂仙逝不胜悲痛〉

7.在正文右下方署名。

八、CERTIFICATE OF MERIT(奖状)

奖状是给获胜者及取得显著成绩的工作者所颁发的荣誉证明。

1.在奖状正中上方用大写字母写CERTIFICATE OF MERIT。

2.在奖状左上方顶格写To及获奖者姓名，姓名后用逗号。

3.在姓名下右边空4—6个字母处开始写获奖原由。

4.把发奖单位写在原由下左边，注意要顶格写，各单词首字母要大写。

5.把发奖日期写在发奖单位下边，注意要从左边顶格写起。

6.范文：

CERTIFICATE OF MERIT

To Zhao Xin，

In the English competition of this year，you have won remarkable success. For enc ouragement this certificate is hereby given.

Guanshan Middle School

November 10，1999

九、WELCOMING SPEECH(欢迎词)

欢迎词是在接待客人等正式场合中使用的一种文体。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。正文中对客人的来访表示欢迎，简介客人情况并向客人作自我介绍，概括叙述所要从事的活动。主题要写明确，感情真挚;条理要清;语言力求通俗、简洁、准确。

1.称呼语写在第一行左边，顶格书写。客人是人时常用：(1)Dear Miss…(2)Dear Mr…(3) Dea r Mrs…(4)Dear sir，(5)Dear Madame，(6)Dear…客人是多人时常用：(1)Dear comrades，( 2)Dear friends，(3)Dear ladies，(4)Dear gentlemen，(5)Ladies and gentlemen，(6)Boys and girls，(7)Dear comrades and friends，

2.写正文时常用句式有：(1)We thank you for your accepting our invitation to come here.(2)You are warmly welcome to our…(3)First of all，Ill introduce our…to you. (4)Now our friend is going to give us a talk on…(5)We hope you will have a nice time during your stay here.(6)I hope you will enjoy yourself.(7)Id like to express our thanks for your coming…(8)Now let me invite our friends to speak to us.(9) We feel very much honoured to have a chance to get together with…(10)First of all ， on behalf of all present here，allow me to give our warm welcome to our distingui shed guest.

3.结束语写在正文下，从左边空4—6个字母的距离处写起。常用语有：“Thank you!”“Le ts welcome…to speak to us.”;“I wish you have a good time.”;“Let us invite …to speak to us.”

十、FOUND(招领启事)

招领启事是一种公告性的应用文。由日期、启事正文、拾物人姓名构成。

1.在纸正上方中间写FOUND。

2.在右上方写日期。

3.在左边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写正文。常用句式有：(1)A wallet was left in the … (2)Will the owner pleasering…(3)I happened to find…(4)Loser is expect to come to…(5)I found…on…

4.拾物人姓名署在右下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十一、LOST(寻物启事)

寻物启事一般由标题、正文、结束语及署名构成，是一种公告性的文体。

1.在纸的正中上方写标题LOST。

2.正文从左边写起，写清丢失物名、丢失时间、丢失地点，描述物品特征及联系方式。写正文时常用的句式有：(1)A bag with a wallet， left in…(2)I lost…(3)Will the finder please come to…(4)On…，I lost…with…(5)At…I left my…in…

3.在正文右下方用感谢语作结束语。

4.寻物人姓名署在左下角。

5.范文请参阅：SEFC1B-Unit 18。

十二、BILL(单据)

单据包括借条、收条和领条。是日常生活中向别人因手续上的需要而写的简短凭证。单据应写明事情和与事情相关的原因、人称、地点、时间和数量。

1.在单据左上方写日期。

2.在单据右顶格写“To+所借物主姓名”，另起一格写“I owe you+物品名称only”，常用 “I.O.U”代替“I owe you.”。

3.在左下角写借物人姓名。

4.领条和收条常在日期下一格右边空4—6个字母的距离处起首写Received from+姓名…。在右下方写收件人姓名及单位，在单位前常加For。

5.范文：

(1)借条

November 20，1999

To Zhang Ping

I.O.U.one hundred yuan(￥100)only.

Chang Ming

(2)收条

November 10，1999

Received from Li Hua 500 yuan for tuition.

Qiao Hongsheng

十三、INTRODUCTION OF CHARACTERS(人物介绍)

人物介绍是把某人的性格特征、工作业绩及爱憎感情通过报刊杂志进行宣传的文件。

1.把标题写在纸上方正中位置。

2.介绍人物的生平和事迹按照事情发生的先后顺序描写。一般按出生、童年、事业与兴趣、成绩等安排材料。

3.介绍人物时的常用句式有：(1)Charle Chaplin is considered one of the greatest and funniest actors in the history of the cinema.(2)He was born in London in 1889.(3)At the age of eight， he joined a group of child dancers.(4)As early as his second film， Chaplin had developed his own manner of acting， the one that was to become world?famous.(5)Mart in Luther King，Jr.， who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1964，was an important political leader in the USA.(6)He had fair hair and blue eyes.(7)Joe Hill was a tall，thin，good?looking man.(8)She was a young woman who was studying art.(9)He became famous for his new theory.(10)We regard Ding Ding as our model.(11)People spoke highly of her and all respeced her.(12)She is fond of art. (13)He was interested in the theory.(14)One of the pioneers of farming was Jia Sixie.(15)When he was a child he was always trying out new ideas.

4.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 11;SEFC1A-Unit 13;SEFC1B-Unit 24;SEFC2A-Unit 5;SEFC2B -Unit 13;SEFC2B-Unit 19。

十四、INSTRUCTION(须知)或(说明)

须知是日常生活中，安排工作时要求工作人员应明确的事项及应注意的问题所应用的一种文体。

1.把标题一般写在纸的上方正中，每个字母均要大写，也可以把标题从上方左边顶格书写，字母大字。

2.正文常用数词标明，逐条写明应明确的事项和应注意的问题，条理要清楚，内容要准确，解释要科学、客观。

3.正文还可以从左边顶格起首分层次叙述。

4.正文常用句式是祈使句和简单句。

5.范文请参阅：JEFCⅢ-Unit 18;SEFC1B-Unit 16。

十五、RÉSUMÉ(履历表)

履历表是个人对自己的姓名、身份、学历和经历等情况作自我介绍时所填写的表格。

1.表格上方正中写有RÉSUMÉ。

2.表中项目从左边顶格依次向下排列。在“Name in Full：”后填姓名，在“Date of Birt h：”后填出生年月日，在“Place of Birth：”后填出生地点，在“Education：”后填学历，分时段填明，在“Permanent Address：”后填永久通讯地址，在“Health：”后填健康状况，在“Sex：”后填性别，在“Marital Status：”后填婚姻状况，在“Honours and Awards： ”后填受奖情况，在“Working Experience：”后填工作简历。

3.填写原则是客观、准确。

4.范文请参阅NMET1996书面表达答案。

十六、FAREWELL SPEECH(欢送词)

欢送词是欢送客人时的致辞。一般由称呼语、正文和结束语构成。

1.称呼语从纸上方第一行左边顶格起首。若欢送的是一个人，常用“Dear Mr…，”;“Dear Miss…，”;“Dear Doctor…，”;“Dear Mrs…”等等。若欢送的人多，常用“Dear friends，”;“Dear ladies and gentlemen，”;“Dear comrades and friends，”;“Dear boys and girls”等等。

2.正文在称呼语下，从左边空出4—6个字母的距离处起首。常用句式有(1)Today we gather here to have a send?off meeting.(2)Dr.Ge is going to leave his post and return to Xian.(3)He is loved and respected by us all.(4)We thank him very much for his wo nderful work.(5)We hope youll have a nice time.(6)Miss Di will leave for Beijing.(7)We wish her a pleasant journey and good health.(8)May the friendship between our two cities last for ever.(9)Well take this chance to ask Mr White to convey our friendship to the British people.(10)We are happily gathered here to give Professor Kang a warm send?off.(11)To our great joy， we are gathered here to give Mr Smith a warm seeing?off.(12)We will give a warm send?off to Miss Li going to visit Xian.(13)Dr Zhang is going to leave for home today.(14)Professor Lius visit to Xian is short but very successful.(15)In saying good?bye to him，we sincerely hope that hell have a good health.

3.结束语常另起一行，在正文下用“Thank you!”等表示谢意。

十七、POSTER(海报)

海报是向公众作广告宣传的文体。内容包括节目表、影讯、报告会、联欢会、球讯等。

1.节目表常在正上方用大写名称，在左边写Items， Items下方逐一列出节目名称，右边写P erformed by，并在下方逐一列出表演者。

2.节目表常用语有：(1)Solo：(独唱)(2)Chorus：(合唱)(3)Folk song：(民歌)(4)Comic dialogue：(相声)(5)Skit：(短剧)(6)Folk dance：(民间舞蹈)(7)Ballet：(芭蕾)(8)Peacock Dance：(孔雀舞)。

3.影讯常在正上方中间写Film Show;从左边写Name of the film：冒号右边写上上映的片名，如：Laugh Laugh Laugh;在左边另起一行写“Time”：冒号右边写映出时间，如：October 10，10∶00 PM;从左边另起一格写“Place：”冒号右边写上映地点，如：Peoples Cinema.在“Face：”后写票价;在“Ticket Office：”后写售票地点。

4.球讯常在正上方中间写“Basketball Match”;“Football Match”;“Friendly Basket ball Match”等，有时在上边写有“POSTER”。在第二行中间写比赛队名称，如：ClassⅡ vs .ClassⅢ(注：vs.=versus对);在第三行左边顶格写“Time：”，在后写比赛时间，如：6∶00 PM.Monday;在第四行左边写“Place：”在后写比赛地点。球讯也可以在醒目的标题下 ，用简炼文字叙述清比赛队名、时间、地点等，在右下方写明举办单位，在左下方顶格写出海报的日期。

5.报告会常在海报正上方中间写“Talk”，从第二行左边顶格起首写“Speaker：”在后边写报告人姓名;第三行顶格写“Subject：”在后边写报告的专题名称;第四行顶格写“Time ：”后边写清具体时间，第五行顶格写“Place：”后边写报告会地点。

6.联欢会、报告会、音乐会主持人常用语有：(1)The program is about to begin.(2)Att ention，please?(3)Ladies and gentlemen，may I have your attention，please?(4)Have your seat，everyone.(5)We heartly welcome…to join in our party.(6)We are very much honoured to have many teachers as our guests.Among them are…(7)Now the concert begins.(8)Now the talk begins.Take your seat，everyone.(9)No more talking，please.

十八、INVITATIONS(请柬)

请柬是正式社交场合采用的简短邀请信函。

1.第一行正中是邀请人的姓名;第二行常写request the pleasure of(恭请…光临);第三行写被邀请人姓名;第四行写活动内容;第五行写日期;第六行写时间;第七行写地点，第八行在左边顶格写R.S.V.P(请赐回音;请答复)在右下边可以写上电话号码。

2.请柬还可以用文字叙述清楚内容。复函时常在上方正中写“Accepting the above Invit ation”，在第二行右边写复函日期;在第三行左边顶格起首写称呼语，从第四行起写正文，格式与书信相同，右下角为谦称。

十九、PLACE OF INTRODUCTION(地点介绍)

地点介绍是对某一地方的自然环境、现在、过去及未来的情况进行描述，向大众展示该地区风貌的文体。

1.写地点介绍时，把标题写在正上方。

2.描写常按照空间位置，由近及远依次描写，也可以先总体描述后局部描述，描写时要抓住中心点和特色。叙述不同时间发生的事情要用不同的时态，用好被动语态和there be 句型。

3.地点介绍常用的句式有(1)Its to the north of England.(2)Its in the east of Shaanxi.(3)Its on the west of Shaanxi.(4)It lies south of France.(5)The city is separated by the river.(6)It is made up of four buildings.(7)It is famous for its beautiful countryside.(8)The city lies on the river.(9)It is divided into two parts.(10)The weather here is neither too cold in winter nor too hot in summer.(11)They lived mainly on potatoes.(12)The library was set up in 1997.(13)Our school has a library with books，newspapers and magazines.(14)The house used to be a temple.(15)Mountain Li is famous for its beauty.(16)It is a place where the famous men can spend their spare time.(17)In front of it is a garden.(18) In the middle of the city stands a bell tower.(19)It covers a n area 2578 square kilometers with a population of 1.26 million.(20)There are three famous parks in and around the city.

4.范文请参阅：SEFC1A-Unit 22，MET1990高考书面表达参考答案。

二十、SAFETY IN THE HOME(家庭安全公约)

家庭安全公约是家庭每个成员必须去做的成文规定。

1.在正中或从左边顶格写SAFETY IN THE HOME。

2.从第2行左边顶格起首向下依次写“POISONS：”、“FIRES：”、“ELECTRICITY：”、“GAS FIRES：”、“COOKING：”、“LADDERS：”、“WATER：”、“THINGS IN MOUTH： ”，在各栏目后用 祈使句写清务必要做到的事项。

3.范文请参阅：SEFC2A-Unit 8。

新闻写作的基本要求是由新闻作品的基本特征决定的。真实是新闻的第一生命。如果新闻不能坚持真实性，新闻就失去了它存在的价值。时新性是时间性与新鲜性的合称。新闻写作不但要讲究时间性，还要给人以新鲜感。小编收集了新闻写作的基础，欢迎阅读。

(一) 新闻写作的基本要求

新闻写作的基本要求是由新闻作品的基本特征决定的。

1、坚持真实性

真实是新闻的第一生命。如果新闻不能坚持真实性，新闻就失去了它存在的价值。

新闻真实性的具体要求

构成新闻的基本要素要准确无误;新闻反映的事实的环境条件、过程和细节，任务的语言甚至动作都必须真实;新闻中引用的各种材料，如数字、史料、背景材料等，都必须准确，新闻中涉及到任务的思想认识和心理活动等，都必须是当事人所述。

注意微观真实与宏观真实地辩证结合

整体不是个体的简单相加，宏观也并非微观的简单放大。微观科学固然是客观科学的前提，但宏观科学更是微观科学的指导和保证。在很多情况下，单就某一事实而言是绝对真实的，但是，把它放到全局、大背景下进行考察，就失去了原来意义上的真实性。以点代面、用一个侧面否定另一个侧面、片面性、绝对化等都会造成新闻的“总体失实”。

加强作风建设，消除“客里空”影响

“客里空”是苏联剧作家考涅楚克的剧作《前线》中一个惯于捕风捉影、弄虚作假的前线记者的名字。后来成未记者浮夸作风的代名词。1947年《晋绥日报》开展了长达四个月的“反‘客里空’运动”，新中国成立后，新闻界也曾多次以“客里空”为戒，端正作风。但“客里空”的影响至今仍然存在，具体表现在：为了追求生动感人，“合理想象”(Reasonable Imagination)增加许多不真实的细节;“合理预言”，加大提前量;夸大其词，胡编乱造;见风使舵，强扭角度。

提高记者素质，增强辨别能力

有时记者本意并不想造假，但由于素质上的欠缺，或粗枝大叶，或真假不辨也会造成失实。

2、坚持时新性

时新性是时间性与新鲜性的合称。新闻写作不但要讲究时间性，还要给人以新鲜感。

新闻姓“新”，时间性是新闻的本质特征之一。记者采访必须雷厉风行，随时处于待机状态，争取在“第一时间”赶到现场。

在写作上则要坚持新鲜性：内容新(角度新、主题新)，形式新(把最重要的信息放在新闻的最前面、寻找“最近点”)。

所谓“最近点”包括两方面的内容：一是“一点”，即新闻所报道的“何时”要素是指新闻事件发展过程中的一点而不是指整段过程;二是“最近”，即新闻所选择的那一点时间应该尽可能是距离报道事件最近的，是事件发展过程的末端而不是前端。

3、坚持思想性

思想性也可称为指导性，即媒介通过具体的新闻报道，以影响、指导受众的思想、态度、情感和行为，最终把他们引导到一定的目标上去。坚持思想性并不是在新闻中贴上几句政治口号就能做到。必须：

寓思想性于信息传播之中

受众首先是为了寻求信息才接触媒介，继而接受媒介所要传播的思想;思想性是蕴含在事实之中的，是事物本身所具有的本质属性，并不是外加的、主观的东西。

思想性应与针对性结合

抓住群众普遍关心的问题。

思想性应与深刻性结合

有了深刻性，但如果对问题研究不深不透，对问题的表述如“钝刀割肉”，毫无尖锐泼辣的锋芒，不能“言人之所不能言”，也会大大削弱思想性的分量。

4、坚持简明性

简明是一切题材的新闻作品的最显著的特征。简练也是最高级的写作技巧，对记者来说，更是语言文字方面的最基本的基本功。美国新闻学者巴克赫斯特说：“写新闻最容易犯的毛病是写得过于复杂。”为此他提出了一个“K

ISS(Keep it simple and Stupid)原则”，要求“以最平实的预言，在最短的空间说完”。具体地说，简明性包含两层意思：

通俗明了

这是新闻作品写作上一个主要特征和主要要求。要达到这个要求，就要：排除“拦路虎”，消除生僻艰深的字句;控制句子长度，中国学者认为，中文句子平均每句以7—20字为宜。

简洁凝练

这是比“短”更高一个层次的要求。邓小平说：“可以不说的去掉，该说的就可以更突出。”

(二)新闻写作的一般规律及认识依据

1、新闻写作的一般规律

从新闻形成过程看，新闻写作的特殊规律，集中表现为：服从事实和事实的报道。真实性是新闻的第一生命，形式受制于事实，具体来说：

新闻写作服从事实和事实的报道规律

立脚点先服从事实，再是要服从事实的报道;

服从事实，报道实事求是，对新闻写作来讲，是根本，是立足点，也是衡量一篇新闻作品成败的基本标准;

新闻写作服从事实的报道，就是要全面把握新闻特性和新闻的传播需要，以事实为本，争取时效。

认识依据：

我们对新闻写作规律总的认识依据是：新闻写作服从事实和事实报道这一规律，归根结底，决定于新闻对事实的依存关系和能动作用。

首先，新闻源于事实、报道事实，没有事实就没有新闻，就是社会主义新闻学在新闻与事实关系上的基本观点;

其次，新闻虽由客观存在的事实构成，却不是事实原封不动的翻版，也不可能是“有闻必录”;

新闻写作服从事实和事实的报道规律，体现了新闻对于反映事实的客观性和主观能动性的统一。

2、由新闻写作一般规律引申的问题

新闻事实与新闻真实的关系

注意的问题之一：不要被表面现象所迷惑，要透过现象看本质;

之二：不能不顾及宏观事实，在微观中顾及宏观。

?主观意愿与客观反映的关系

主观脱离客观的表现：合理想象、表述不当

3、新闻写作的具体要求

新、快、短、活

如何把新闻写短?

a. 直截了当，开门见山陈述事实

b. 空话少说

c. 一事一报

d. 语言准确、洗练

e. 善于删改

怎样把新闻写活?

a. 运用蒙太奇手法，把最重要、最精彩的内容放在最前面;

b. 运用断裂式行文，多分段;

c. 多写视觉新闻

小知识点

断裂式行文：即择取事实点面结合，跳跃式行文;段落简短，叙事简洁，讲究思想的递进和丰富;讲究逻辑衔接，省去铺垫过渡等等。

(三)新闻写作的特殊规律

新闻写作的特殊规律是“用事实说话”(Let the fact speak itself)。我国老一辈新闻工作者吴冷西说过：“新闻应该按新闻的规律办事——让事实说话。”这是对新闻写作基本规律的科学概括。

1、为什么要用事实说话?

“事实”是客观存在，“说话”是主观意图。主观和客观的对立统一形成了新闻写作中的基本矛盾。“用事实说话”正是解决这对矛盾的唯一正确的方法。具体地说，我们可以从以下几方面来认识这个问题：

用事实说话符合人们的认识规律

人们认识客观世界总是从具体的事实开始的，没有人先从抽象的概念来认识世界。人们要认同记者所说的“话”也只能是从记者向人们所报道的事实中去理解、去分析。

用事实说话符合受众的接受心理

自尊是人的一项不可缺少的、高层次的心理需求。自尊意味着人们不愿意事事听命于别人，每一个判断，都由别人替他做出。人人都愿意自己做出结论，自己做出判断。用事实说话，就满足了人们的这种自尊的要求。

新闻是一种无形的意见

胡乔木说：“我们人人都会发表有关的意见，新闻却是一种无形的意见。”所谓“无形的意见”西方又称为“无声的意见”(Silence opinion)。“无形”或“无声”是因为“从文字上看去，说话的人，只要客观地、忠实地、朴素地叙述他所见所闻的事实。但因为每个叙述总是根据着一定的观点，接受事实的读者也就会接受叙述中的观点。”(胡乔木)如果新闻不是“无形”或“无声”地发表意见，它就会与文告、广告无异了。

?在现代新闻战中，用事实说话是取得主动权的唯一可靠的武器

对于各种各样的诬蔑、诽谤，唯有用确凿的事实方能予以粉碎;对于各种各样的误解、疑虑，也只有用生动的事实才能消除。

2、不善于“用事实说话”的主要表现

直接在新闻中发表感想和议论

虽然新闻并不一概排斥恰如其分的议论，但事实的叙述必须是主要的和充分的，议论只能是画龙点睛。而不善于用事实说话者，则恰好颠倒了过来。大量的议论不但多余，而且空洞。

不交待消息来源

新闻中的“道理”，不管采用什么方式去讲，都必须以充分的事实为依据。事实不充分，“道理”也就成为了强词夺理。西方新闻学家强调，要想让读者理解记者在稿件中所要表达的道理，首先就要使读者相信稿件中报道的事实，为此，就要交待每一个事实的来源，做到有根有据。而现在很多新闻稿，不但不交待消息来源，而且还经常武断地说：“某某社区的居民们一致表示……”“获得了同学们的热烈赞扬……”这种写法曾经引起过许多外国朋友的反感。一位英国专家指出：两个以上的人不可能说完全相同的一长段话。记者用“广大群众说”这个提法，只不过是笨拙地借群众之口表达自己的意见。

不善于捕捉生动的细节

满足于铺陈廉价的形容词，却不会用生动的细节去展现人物的内心世界。

小知识点

消息来源(source)，指新闻信息的出处，或提供信息的人。交待新闻来源或暗示新闻来源，可使读者知道新闻事实是从哪里来的，这样能增加新闻的可信度、真实性、权威性。但此事经常被一些记者忽略，没有新闻来源的新闻司空见惯。

海外记者在处理消息来源问题上，一般的做法是：让新闻事件参与者、新闻事件目击者、新闻事件知情者作为消息来源，并在文中指出。有时，为了保护消息提供人，可用暗示，但不能没有来源。马克思在1848年6月25日巴黎工人起义时，因为交通阻隔，《新莱茵报》无法获得准确消息，只好以号外形式报道《巴黎消息》：“科伦6月24日晚10时。23日巴黎邮件没有收到。据到达这里的信差说，当他离开巴黎的时候，群众跟国民自卫军的厮杀已经开始了。在离城不远的地方，可听到猛烈的炮声。”(《马克思恩格斯全集》5卷/129页)这就是马克思对待消息来源的做法。

3、怎样用事实说话?

“藏舌头”

“藏舌头”是西方新闻界对“用事实说话”的新闻表达方式的通常的说法，是一种形象的比喻。“舌头”是新闻记者要通过新闻作品表达的思想、主题，要说的“话”，但这个“话”并不直接说出来，而是通过精选的事实和对事实的安排，让读者(受众)自己去感觉出来的。“舌头”如何“藏”?可以注意以下方面：

把要表达的意思“藏”在幕后。

把要说的话“藏”在新闻角色的口中。

把倾向性“藏”在背景材料中

把倾向性“藏”在对通篇新闻事实的精心组织之中

用事实说话的具体技巧

如果说“藏舌头”的方法主要是为了达到自己的宣传目的的话，那么，这里的一些技巧则主要是增强新闻报道的可信度。这些方法都十分具体，有很强的可操作性。

一般用第三人称叙述。这样可以减少记者站出来指手画脚地机会，容易做到客观公正;注明消息来源。对那些阐明事件的原因、预示事件发展趋势、解释事实之间内部联系的内容，一般要注明消息来源。特别是内幕新闻，不写明消息来源就无法使读者相信，甚至会以为是记者的瞎猜;对于有争议的、容易引起怀疑的事实，注明消息来源克增强新闻的可信性，同时也有利于读者对这些事实进行分析、判断;对于那些一时得不到官方证实，又十分重要的新闻，几乎每句话都应注明消息来源。消息来源主要包括：新闻事件的参与者、新闻事件的目击者、新闻事件的知情者、权威人士、消息灵通人士等。

注意报道的平衡性。对有倾向性的报道，千万不能顾此失彼，损害了新闻报道的全面性、公正性。客观、公正、全面是新闻报道的基本原则。用事实说话也要说全面、公正的话，不说片面的话。要既报喜也报忧，讲成绩也讲缺点。表扬时不要把成绩说得过满，批评时也不要一棍子打死，要讲出产生问题的主客观原因;报道有争议的问题，要如实报道各方面意见而不能偏袒一方。

再现现场。用记者亲眼所见到典型场景说明要说明的问题，也是用事实说话常用的方法。

捕捉细节。细节对于刻画人物来说，往往能生动真切地展现其个性特征、内心世界;对表现社会生活来说，以小见大，往往能说明能深刻地主题而又有很强的说服力。

通过对比。新旧对比、前后对比、横向对比，比数字、比现象，都是很有说服力的写法。

通过事实本身的逻辑说话。

通过别人的嘴说话。

通过背景材料说话。

题目：我家的一个星期天

一、教学目的、要求：

1．作文前列出提纲。

2．按一定顺序叙述。

3．把主要事情写具体些。

二、教学时间：2课时

三、教学准备：教学小黑板

四、教学过程：

㈠启发谈话，导入新课。

星期天你们家是怎样度过的？哪一个星期天你过得最愉快、最有意义？说给大家听听。

㈡指导作文提纲。

1．这次作文的题目可以怎么定？（学生发言）

可以用“我家的一个星期天”，也可以自己另外定题目，强调题目一定要紧扣文章内容来定。

2．选好写哪一个星期天以后，再想一想用什么题目，表达什么中心思想，材料怎样安排，然后列一个作文提纲。

㈢学生各自列作文提纲，教师指导。

㈣请几个学生读自己列的提纲，教师酌情评议指导。

㈤提出具体作文要求。

1．写作时要按提纲来写，做到有顺序。

2．把主要的事重点写。

3．做到有中心，有条理，语句通顺。

㈥学生写作，教师巡视指导。

On College Students Occupying Seats

In English, there is an expression “First Come, First Served” (FCFS). This stresses the need for orderliness, which also applies to college students searching for seats in the reading rooms of a library. However, in China, things are somehow complicated. Instead of occupying seats with their own persons, students tend to use books, backpacks or other personal objects to stand for their “legitimate” ownership of the seats.

To such extent, the emergence of such a practice, now almost ubiquitous on all campuses, is justified. The seats for students to conduct self-study are limited and university authorities should endeavor to increase such facilities to satisfy students needs. At least, students efforts to fight for seats indicate they are enthusiastic about their studies—their academic initiatives should be duly recognized and encouraged! However, using personal belongings to occupy seats may exacerbate the scarcity of facilities—some irresponsible students might never turn up, sometimes even for days. They waste the precious resources and damage the interests of other students who have real needs. Such behavior deserves unconditional criticism and condemnation.

Both university authorities and students should do their best to solve the problem. The authorities should create more reading rooms to satisfy students needs whereas students should not waste the already limited resources. In this way, an optimum allocation of resources can be realized and all students would enjoy their studies.

参考译文

在英语里有个说法，叫做“先到者先得”。它强调的是，人们必须遵守秩序。这一点也适用于大学生们在学校图书馆的阅览室里寻找座位的行为。然而，在中国，事情似乎稍显复杂。学生们不是亲身去占有座位，而往往是用书本、书包或其他个人物件来代表他们对于某个座位的“合法”占有权。

在某种程度上，这种在每个校园里几乎无所不在的做法有其合理之处。学生们用于进行自习的座位数量有限，学校当局应尽力去增加此类设施，以满足学生们的需求。不管怎么说，学生们努力去争夺座位，表明他们热衷于他们的学习——他们的学习主动性应得到应有的认可和鼓励。然而，用个人物品去占座，却很有可能使设施的匮乏更趋严重——有些不责任的学生可能一整天甚至数天都不会现身!他们浪费了宝贵的资源，损害了其他真正有需求的学生的利益。这种行为理应受到无条件的批评，乃至谴责。

无论是校方还是学生们自己，都应尽力去解决这一难题。校方应开辟更多的阅览室来满足学生们的需求，而学生们也不应去浪费早已捉襟见肘的资源。如此一来，一种最佳的资源配置就能得以实现，而所有的学生终将尽享他们的学习。