写作

下面是语文迷网整理提供的35个初中英语写作会用到的句型，大家一起来看看吧。

一、~~~ the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + haveever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

~~~ the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：

Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

二、Nothing is + ~~~ er than to + V Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：

Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

三、~~~ cannot emphasize the importance of ~~~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：

We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

四、There is no denying that + S + V ...(不可否认的...)

例句：

There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

五、It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：

It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

六、There is no doubt that + 句子~~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：

There is no doubt that our educational system leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的教育制度令人不满意。

七、An advantage of ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的优点是...)

例句：

An advantage of using the solar energy is that it wont create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

八、The reason why + 句子 ~~~ is that + 句子 (...的原因是...)

例句：

The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air./ The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

九、So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此...以致于...)

例句：

So precious is time t

that we cant afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们经不起浪费它。

十、Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V~~~ (虽然...)

例句：

Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. {by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不}

虽然我们的国家富有，我们的生活品质绝对令人不满意。

十一、The + ~er + S + V, ~~~ the + ~er + S + V ~~~

The + more + Adj + S + V, ~~~ the + more+ Adj + S + V ~~~(愈...愈...)

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make.

你愈努力，你愈进步。

The more books we read, the more learned we become.

我们书读愈多，我们愈有学问。

十二、By +Ving, ~~ can ~~ (借着...，..能够..)

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy.

借着做运动，我们能够始终保持健康。

十三、~~~ enable + Object(受词)+ to + V (..使..能够..)

例句：Listening to music enable us to feel relaxed.

听音乐使我们能够感觉轻松。

十四、On no account can we + V ~~~ (我们绝对不能...)

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge.

我们绝对不能忽略知识的价值。

十五、It is time + S + 过去式 (该是...的时候了)

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems.

该是有关当局采取适当的措施来解决交通问题的时候了。

十六、Those who ~~~ (...的人...)

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished.

违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。

十七、There is no one but ~~~ (没有人不...)

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college.

没有人不渴望上大学。

十八、be + forced/compelled/obliged + to + V (不得不...)

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports.

既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。

十九、It is conceivable that + 句子 (可想而知的)

It is obvious that + 句子 (明显的)

It is apparent that + 句子 (显然的)

例句：It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.

可想而知，知识在我们的一生中扮演一个重要的角色。

二十、That is the reason why ~~~ (那就是...的原因)

例句：Summer is sultry. That is the reason why I dont like it.

夏天很燠热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。

二十一、For the past + 时间，S + 现在完成式.(过去...年来，...一直...)

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination.

过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。

二十二、Since + S + 过去式，S + 现在完成式。

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard.

自从他上高中，他一直很用功。

二十三、It pays to + V ~~~ (...是值得的。)

例句：It pays to help others.

帮助别人是值得的。

二十四、be based on (以...为基础)

例句：The progress of thee society is based on harmony.

社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。

二十五、Spare no effort to + V (不遗余力的)

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment.

我们应该不遗余力的美化我们的环境。

二十六、bring home to + 人 + 事 (让...明白...事)

例句：We should bring home to people the valueof working hard.

我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。

二十七、be closely related to ~~ (与...息息相关)

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health.

做运动与健康息息相关。

二十八、Get into the habit of + Ving= make it a rule to + V (养成...的习惯)

We should get into the habit of keeping good hours.

我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。

二十九、Due to/Owing to/Thanks to + N/Ving, ~~~(因为...)

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream.

因为他的鼓励，我终于实现我的梦想。

三十、What a + Adj + N + S + V!= How + Adj + a + N + V!(多么...!)

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise!

How important a thing it is to keep our promise!

遵守诺言是多么重要的事!

三十一、Leave much to be desired (令人不满意)

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired.

我们的交通状况令人不满意。

三十二、Have a great influence on ~~~ (对...有很大的影响)

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health.

抽烟对我们的健康有很大的影响。

三十三、do good to (对...有益)，do harm to (对...有害)

例句：Reading does good to our mind.读书对心灵有益。

Overwork does harm to health.工作过度对健康有害。

三十四、Pose a great threat to ~~ (对...造成一大威胁)

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence.

污染对我们的生存造成一大威胁。

三十五、do ones utmost to + V = do ones best (尽全力去...)

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life.

我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。

有爱，好幸福

坚持了许久“沉默是最好的语言”的世界，就那么残忍的被两滴泪淹没了，不解的是我居然沉沦在那种残忍的幸福中。其实，达到心与心的零距离，不是沉默所能妄想的。

一

《飞鸟集》是我生命中的第一本书，那本天书一般的小册子并非我的最爱，只是泰戈尔是妈妈一直很欣赏的诗人，家里关于他的资料比较多罢了。哼，我竟然可笑的爱上了一句话，“世界是最遥远的距离不是生与死，而是我站在你面前你却不知我爱你”——妈妈爱说的话。

二

那时，她是一名教师，不仅是我们的班主任，也是他们的张老师。脑子里那个柔弱女人的形象有点遥不可及了。似乎她头上的蓝天白云，身后的青山碧水，甚至还有她那身职业装时刻都提醒着我，她是一名教师。讲台上的她，真的是高不可攀，而题海中的她更加深不可测。面对她不顾母女情面一次又一次严厉的批评，面对因为那血红的错叉在深夜推开我房门的她，我胆怯了，疏远了她，那个曾经离我很近的妈妈。

不敢牵起她的手，不敢同她散步，只是远远跟在她身后，我害怕迎面而来的一声声“张老师”，如洪水般冲塌我不堪一击的世界。我早已迷失在自己的世界里，老师?妈妈?我更厌烦同学因为试题的接近或远离，也厌烦一个不完整家庭的孤独假日。但又能怎样，只能握着爸爸的手给他一个苦涩的微笑，然后抛弃渴望注视前方的妈妈，向后退着。

三

“不要为太阳的落山忙着流泪，小心错过满天的星辰”不管是妈妈还是老师，她总说这句话，每当此时，她永远不会看见面无表情转身离开的女儿的心在流泪。是，她的确应该为满天星辰的炫目而庆幸，但她忽视了太阳的悲伤确是事实，不是吗?高高的讲台上，温柔和蔼的张老师不可否认就是我残忍的妈妈，那慈爱的微笑，那温暖的大衣，不再属于我一人。而我只能在后面默默的后退。

四

然而，她得到了什么?激烈的岗位竞争无情的抛弃了你，她的未来成为未知!看着她在那片曾经属于她的领地上，依旧持着僵硬的职业微笑将一片灿烂的星辰拱手于人的时候，我笑了，笑的愈加幸福了，因为不再有张老师，有的只是我小别的妈妈;不会再有那样孤独的假日，有的只是寒冷冬夜那样幸福的依靠。虽然，依旧会因为红叉而皱眉，依旧因为错误而怒目，但是，她永远不会发现我眉心深处那点幸福已经渐渐靠近她身边。

五

做回妈妈，她也会觉得幸福吗?不然熟睡中的她怎么会是微笑的。我轻轻趴在她枕边，抚摸着她的额头、她的鼻子、她的唇……“妈妈，我永远爱你。”我轻声向她诉说着。在起身准备离去的刹那，一滴滚烫砸在我的手心里，那是她眼角划落的一滴泪，我哭了，那滚烫的泪水被我紧紧握在手心里，直到它们淹没了我的世界。她一定是感觉到了，感觉到了我们的心靠在了一起，靠的紧紧的。

六

左手牵着爸爸的手，右手牵着妈妈的手，在阳光明媚的假日里踱着步子，真的好幸福!达到心与心的零距离，不是沉默所能妄想的。

修辞手段一般主要用于文学性写作中。但在大学英语的英文写作中有时也需要运用一定的具有英文特征的修辞手段，而且运用得好，会使语句生动从而增添语句亮点。因此，掌握一些一般常用修辞手段对于实现语句亮点也是非常必要的。对于大学英语写作来说，主要应该掌握以下修辞手段，又称语句辞格，包括结构辞格与语义辞格。对比、排比、重复、倒装等为结构辞格，转义、双关、矛盾等则为语义辞格。

1.对比正反对比就是要巧妙地运用对称的英文句式来表达互为补充的意思，因此恰当地运用反义词语往往是必不可少的。如果一旦所要表达的内容具有这种情况，就应尽力选用这种对称的句式并选用适当的反义词语来加强语句，实现语句的亮点。

1)如“很多人很快就会发现，他们在物质上是富裕了，精神上却很贫乏”，可以这样达：

Many people will soon find themselves rich in goods，but ragged in spirit.(注：句中rich in与ragged in，goods与spirit具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

2)如“利远远大于弊”，可以这样表达：

The advantages for outweigh the disadvantages.(注：句中the advantages与the disadvantages具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

3)如“他们注意到了这些说法中的一些道理，但他们却忽视了一个重要的事实”，可以这样表达：

They have noticed a grain of truth in the statements，but have ignored a more important fact.(注：句中have noticed与have ignored，a grain of truth in the statements与a more important fact具有正反对比的关系和效果。)

4)如“这样做既有积极效果也有消极效果”，可以这样表达：

It will have both negative and positive effects by so doing.(注：句中negative与positive具有正反对比的关系和效果)

5)如“我们既有与我们很为相似的朋友，又有与我们很为不同的朋友”，可以这样表达：

We have friends similar to us and friends different from us.(注：句中similar to与different from具有正反对比的关系和效果)

2.排比英文中有时也使用排比句式，这种句式整齐而有气势，又不会使人感到单调。例如，如“读书使我们聪明，锻炼使我们强健”，可以这样表达：

Reading makes us wise while exercises make us strong. 3.重复英文一般讲求简洁，因此为表达强调偶尔使用重复可以使语句的强调内容得到突出。英文的重复又根据被重复词语在语句中的位置分为句首重复、句尾重复、首尾重复、尾首重复等。

1)如“现在是忘掉过去一切的时候了。现在是言归正传的时候了。现在是为未来而奋斗的时候了”，可以这样表达：

Now is the time to forget everything in the past. Now is the time to get down to the business. Now is the time to work hard for the future.(注：此句为句首重复，重复部分为句首的now it the time to)

2)如“我们渴望成功，而且正在为成功而努力工作”，可以这样表达：

We long for success and we are working hard for success.(注：此句为句尾重复，重复的部分为句尾的for success.)

3)如“我相信我们能够成功，我相信我们也一定会成功”，可以这样表达：

I am convinced that we can succeed，and Iam convinced that we must succeed.(注：and所连接的两个语句的句首与句尾部分同时重复，重复的部分为句首的I am convinced that与句尾的succeed)

4)如“我们现在生活在一个新的时代，而一个改革充满着风险与机遇”，可以这样表达：

We are now living in a new era，and a new era of reform is always full of ventures and chances.(注：and之前的句尾与and之后的句首重复，重复部分为a new era.)

4.倒装这里说的倒装不同于前述非修辞性的语法结构倒装。非修辞性的语法结构倒装是语句的语法结构所限定的，没有自由选择的余地，只要运用需要倒装结构的句型就要采用倒装结构。这里所说的倒装是指修辞性语义结构倒装，是进行强调的一种手段，它利用了语句句首(或句尾)的特殊位置。例如，如“充满着风险与机遇的改革的新时代正向我们走来”，可以这样表达：

Now on coming to us is the new era of reform full of ventures and chances. 5.转义转义是一种对词语灵活运用的修辞手段，主要有比喻、拟人、夸张、反语、婉转等，比喻又包括明喻、暗喻、换喻、提喻等。

1)如要表达“过去的经历就像图片一样总是在脑海中萦绕”，英文可为：

What had been experienced in the past was always looming in memory like a picture.(注：此句采用明喻，明喻的特点是使用了like一词)

2)如要表达“我们的英语老师就是我们最好的英语辞典”，英文可为：

Our English teacher is our best English dictionary.(注：此句采用暗喻，暗喻的特点是利用事物之间的相似之处进行比喻，与明喻不同之处在于不使用like一词)

3)如要表达“我正在读莎土比亚的书呢”，英文可为：

I am reading Shakespeare.(注：此句采用换喻，换喻的特点是直接借用一事物的名称宋代替另一事物的名称，使用通过联想理解其含义，但不是所有的事物都是可以用换喻来表达的)

4)如要表达“这里需要一个帮手”，英文可为：

A hand is needed here.(注：此句采用提喻，提喻的特点是用一个事物的部分来代表事物的整体或用一个事物的整体来代表事物的部分。这里用hand一词代表整个人)

5)如要表达“巨大的不幸笼罩着整个城市”，英文可为：

A great misfortune crept over the whole city.(注：此句采用拟人。拟人的特点是将事物人格化)

6)如要表达“这种想法可真是伟大的愚蠢”，英文可为：

This is really a great stupid idea.(注：此句采用反语。反语的特点是故意将话反说，具有讽刺意味)

7)如要表达“我太渴望成功了。听到成功的消息我欣喜若狂”，英文可为：

I was mad for success and on the news of success I went mad with joy.(注：此句采用夸张。夸张的特点是为表现事物的特征故意夸大其词)

一、自信上考场

自信是写好作文的先决条件，相信自己就不会怯场，不怯场才能使自己的思维处于最佳状态，潜在的能力得以充分地调动。

二、按时写作文

150分钟的语文测试时间，应该留出60-70分钟的时间作文。时间充足，心中不慌，文思才会泉涌;否则仓促成文，难免丢三落四。

三、细心审题目

命题作文，审题时一定要抓住题目中的关键词语，并进一步展开合理的联想，才能真正把握题目的实质。材料和话题作文，要弄清楚在材料作文与话题作文中，命题者所提供材料的不同作用。在材料作文中，所提供的材料既是考生作文立意的出发点，又是归宿点。考生一定要读懂题干，做点分析，明确主旨，再去下笔，确保万无一失。

四、精心选文体

高考(课程)作文一般不限文体，这给了考生很大的选择文体的自由，考生应该掌握文体选择的基本原则：一是采用该话题更适宜的文体写作;二是采用考生本人更擅长的文体作文。自己擅长，行文才会得心应手、游刃有余。

五、心中有模式

考生心中要有文章的基本结构式：议论文，破题开篇+分析论证+结题收篇;供料议论文的基本结构式：引材开篇+析材明理+联材写事+点材收篇;写事记叙文的基本结构式：事件发生(清楚明白)+事件发展(生动曲折)+事件结局(含蓄启迪);写人记叙文的基本结构式：契入(用外貌、语言、环境、细节入题)+铺垫(简述几个事件)+高潮(详叙典型事件)+点化(用点睛的议论或抒情句收束)等等，上述结构式不是一成不变的，可以演绎出许多的变式来。

六、巧思出新意

为体现可写性的命题原则，高考的作文不管是命题作文，还是话题作文大多都是宽泛的。例如《责任》这样的题目，范围太宽，无从下笔，这样的题目就要去窄作。所谓窄作，就是对题目所涉及的内容进行修饰、限制，然后再针对被限制后的某个侧面扩大其内涵。若从“我们当代青年的责任”这个角度去写，可能就容易多了。

七、素材书中找

要写好一篇考场作文，除了掌握写作模式，还要有写作素材。当你在考场上因缺少素材而抱笔时，可别忘了你学过的语文课本!那里有你取之不尽，用之不竭的素材。

八、主旨要明确

高考作文主旨不要过于含蓄。由于时间的限制，阅卷老师不会慢慢地斟字酌句，所以如果写记叙文，不管叙事多么生动，也要在行文中适当地用一两句抒情或议论语句点明文章主旨，让阅卷老师一目了然;议论文力求事例简洁新鲜，说理充分，紧扣主旨。文章要实实在在，不要过于另类，在明示主旨的基础上，张扬个性。

九、首尾亮起来

开篇立论的好彩头，在第一时间抓住阅卷老师的眼球，是高考作文赢得高分的关键。而结尾的感染力和吸引力，同样是拿分的一大重点。

开头结尾都要精彩，开头和结尾的写作大有讲究。

一般来说，文章开头力求做到一简二美三有哲理。简，就是开篇语言简洁，直奔主题，使阅卷老师一目了然;美，就是开头的语言能给人以美感，或文采斐然，或意境深远，或情趣盎然，那么，必会打动阅卷教师的心;哲理，是一种深度，一种高度，如果都做到了，那效果肯定错不了。

高考作文由于受时间和字数的限制，开头最好采用“开门见山”的写法：或“落笔入题”，说明写作缘由;或“开宗明义”，揭示全文主题;或“言归正传”，快速开讲故事;或“单刀直入”，挑明论敌谬说。也可以采用“形象化”的写法：或描写环境，以引出人物;或抒发感情，以渲染气氛;或先叙故事，以引出深刻道理;或借诗词谣谚，以为叙事的开端。好的开头，新颖生动，引人入胜。

结尾的方法也很多：总结全文，以揭示主旨;展示未来，以鼓舞斗志;抒发情怀，以增强文章感染力;造语含蓄，使读者掩卷而思仍遐想不已。

十、行文如流水

在语言运用上，除平时要求外，还应特别注意要善于调动各种修辞手段，如比喻形象、对偶华美、排比蓄势、对照鲜明、反复强调、设问抑扬、反语讽刺、暗示等等。此外，长句短句错综搭配，雅句俗语相得益彰，也可使文章生色。

十一、字迹要清楚

高考语文试卷是网上阅卷，潦草的字迹、不洁的卷面有可能给阅卷人带来的不愉悦所产生的后果是可想而知的，如果字迹不清，丢失的可就不只是几分了。

作文是决胜高考语文的关键所在，把握作文拿分的技巧，是考生关心的问题。我们将考场作文经验归纳为：“心中有自信，笔下出好字;手头有材料，胸中有成式;不变应万变，妙手著文章”，同学们只要扎扎实实地按照这几步来做，作文得高分并不是一件难事。

童话：是通过丰富的想象丶幻想和夸张，来塑造形象丶反映生活，对儿童进行思想丶道德教育的一种文学样式。童话，讲述的是虚拟的故事，并不是真实的。其中的"人物"，也是假想形象，并非真有其人。但它所表现的人、事、关系、道理，却是现实生活的反映。

一、 童话的写作和要求：

优秀的童话都不是凭空产生的，都是作者细心观察现实生活中的人、事、物后，通过"幻想处理"，创作出来的。写童话不仅需要细心观察，还要经过一个"幻想处理"，也就是"生活幻想化"的过程。只有经过这个过程，生活才能成为童话。在创作童话时，还要注意五点要求：

第一：童话中的幻想是生活的反映，因此要植根于现实。

第二：童话中的夸张一定要突出事物的本质。脱离事物本质的夸张，只能让人感到荒诞、不可信，也就失去了童话的教育意义。

第三：童话中的拟人，一定要抓住事物的特征，符合动植物的特征。

第四：在一篇童话中，表现手法要多样，这样会使你的童话故事显得生动感人。

第五：语言简洁活泼，符合儿童的语言特点。

二、童话的特点

第一：写童话需要幻想和夸张

幻想和夸张，是童话的两只"翅膀"。 幻想，是我们对未来生活的想象。童话离不开幻想，幻想离不开夸张。夸张，是对所要表现的对象或某种特征，故意夸大或缩小的一种修辞手法。没有夸张，幻想的内容就会失去光彩;没有夸张童话中的形象就会暗淡无光;没有夸张，童话的讽刺性就会失去锋芒;没有夸张，童话的语言就会缺乏感染力。如《皇帝的新装》中，那个爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的赤裸裸的皇帝，在现实生活中可能是不存在的，但我们却相信这个故事，因为现实中就有大量爱慕虚荣、愚蠢的人存在，同时也就应运而产生了那种骗子，他们利用一些人的爱慕虚荣、愚蠢，导演着一幕幕荒延的闹剧。这种幻想，源于生活又高于生活，具有相当高的艺术价值。

第二：写童话需要有拟人化的形象

童话里的形象，大多是拟人化的。童话中，无论是动物、植物，其他东西，都可以像人一样会思考、会说话、会做事、会生活。列宁说过:"儿童的本性是爱听童话的。你给儿童讲故事时，如果其中的鸡儿、狗儿都不会说人话，儿童便没有兴趣。"

第三：写童话需要有奇妙、曲折丶动人丶完整的故事情节。

由于童话创作的主要手法是想象、幻想、夸张和拟人，因此，童话的情节都非常奇妙，洋溢着浓烈的浪漫主义色彩。如《神笔马良》的故事，说的是穷孩子马良，凭顽强刻苦的精神，得到了一支神笔。他拿着这支神笔帮助贫苦大众，智斗财主、皇帝，让人读后无不称快。

三、怎样创编童话故事

1、 利用"假设"进行想象

假设某一具体情况，让学生根据这种情况，结合自己的生活经验进行想象、联想。想象可以超越时空、超越自我，甚至想象出世界上不存在的事物。例如，阿凡提来到我们当中，会飞的猴子，鳄鱼拿着一支玫瑰花来敲我的门……这些都是合理的想象。这样坚持下来，久而久之，就会想、敢想，就能大胆创新。

2、利用"绘画"展示故事内容，发展想象能力

在"创编童话"过程中，不要以"写故事"的形式把故事内容展示出来，而是打开绘画纸，展开想象，自由作画，把想到的东西画出来。"画好故事"以后，再给画面配上文字，就成为一篇简单的童话故事了。

3、利用"表演"展现故事情节

例如《小红帽》，可以五人一组，分别扮演"小红帽"、"妈妈"、"外婆"、"猎人"、"狼"，将故事表演出来，表演时可以加以创造，不要完全按照原文表演。表演后，几个人凑在一起，研究一下怎样给故事欢歌结尾。

4、利用"续编"延续故事内容

如《狼和小羊》一文的结尾是："狼不想再争辩了，龇着牙，向小羊扑去……"可以大胆想象并续编故事：小羊最终的结局如何呢?如，小羊想了一个好办法战胜了狼，从此过着幸福的生活。这些与众不同的办法，就是你的想象力;把这些想象写下来，就是一篇很好的童话故事了。

事业单位考试大纲中明确指出，需要考察考查应试人员对学术论文相关知识的了解与实际运用能力。在以往的事业单位考试中，更多的是考察公文写作的相关知识，论文写作考察的很少，且相关的资料也比较少见。小编在此为各位考生简要分析论文写作的相关考点，帮助各位考生更好的复习备考。

首先，论文具有几下几项特征：

①科学性，即选题科学，研究方案合理;数据准确无误;结果与讨论的数据依据充分，具说服力，不出现无数据和现象支持的主观臆断的结果和结论。

②创新性即新颖性;即有别于他人(它文)的本质特征;刻意阐明创新点;应用研究着重实验设备、测试分析技术、工艺方法等方面的更新或改进;基础研究着重理论上的新见解，计算方法的另辟新径;

③学术性，即透过对所研究的客体外象的观测，分析探讨其内在本质，将感性认识进行理论上的深化;切忌将一连串现象无分析归纳的无序堆砌，而将论文写成实验报告或工作总结。

④真实性，即错误、虚假、失实将导致论文科学性和学术性的丧失，甚至可能涉嫌有剽窃行为;不凭主观臆断和好恶随意舍取数据和素材 ，引证他人成果必须给出出处，但只提取与文章密切相关的重要信息用以引证。

⑤标准化和规范化，即书写格式的标准化和规范化，是要按规定的格式书写，即符合信息传递与交流、科技文献管理、以及电子化、数字化等方面的要求。

论文写作的相关依据主要来自国家标准局的文件《科学技术报告、学位论文和学术论文的编写格式》。按照该格式，论文主要分为主体部分和前置部分。

1.前置部分。主要包括①封面——报告、论文的外表面，提供应有的信息，并起保护作用;②封二——可标注送发方式，包括免费赠送或价购，以及送发单位和个人;版权规定;其他应注明事项;③题名页——对报告、论文进行著录的依据;④分类号——中图分类号是按照《中国图书馆分类法》;⑤题目(可加副标题)——以最恰当、最简明的词语反映报告、论文中最重要的特定内容的逻辑组合;⑥署名——姓名、工作单位;⑦摘要——报告、论文的内容不加注释和评论的简短陈述，是独立的短文，概括文章主要信息。⑧关键词——为了文献标引工作从报告、论文中选取出来用以表示全文主题内容信息款目的单词或术语。⑨目次页——长篇报告、论文可以有目次页，短文无需目次页;⑩插图和附表清单——报告、论文中如图表较多，可以分别列出清单置于目次页之后。

2.主体部分。主要包括①引言——(绪论/导论/引论)简短介绍研究的目的、意义、方法、范围、背景等;②正文——实事求是、合乎逻辑、结构严谨、层次分明、论证充分、表达规范、行文流畅;③结论——文章的研究成果，准确、完整、明确、精炼;④致谢——可以在正文后对进行方面致谢;⑤引文——所引用的他人的研究成果(观点、理论、数据等);⑥注释——注明引文的出处;⑦参考文献——写作中所参考、借鉴的重要文章和著作(作者、文章标题，期刊/著作名、出版社、年份、页码等详细情况);⑧附录——作为报告、论文主体的补充项日，并不是必需的。

一、要掌握核心语段的基本结构

模式：主题句+支撑句1、2、3、4……

核心语段的组合不必太繁复，应追求中心清楚，层次明晰，所以一般采取总分结构，形成“主题句+支撑句”的形式。

中心句通常位于段首。支撑句从不同角度、深度、广度来证明主题句。支撑句可以按并列、递进、转折、因果、条件、承接等关系组合。

例如：①虚怀若谷，是人高尚情操的表现，也只有具备了这一点，才是健全的品格。②三国周瑜，年少有为，才智过人，堪称一代儒将。③可是面对足智多谋“运筹帷幄决胜于千里之外”的诸葛孔明，周瑜不是虚心向他人学习，而是忌妒诸葛亮的才华，不肯承认诸葛亮比自己棋高一着的事实，反而发出“既生瑜何生亮”的慨叹，最终忧愤而死。④这一史实说明了嫉妒的危害，它就像绊脚石，阻碍我们的发展，使我们不能清楚地认识自己的缺点，更不利于健康品格的形成。

【分析】此段采用了例证法。由四个句子组成。“主题句”是①，②③④是支撑句。第2句和第3句是转折关系第3句和第4句之间是承接关系。整段话清晰明白，有理有据。

主题句即观点句。其主要内容要用概括的关键词明确表达，后面的主题句才有充分展开分述的空间，也才能给结论留下回扣的对应点。例如：

自信比相信天命更有意义。(观点句)一般人通常喜欢相信天命，在他们的意识里，任何事物都归于上天的安排(过渡句)：生命从上天获得，健康有上天保佑，饮食靠上天赏赐，利益有上天赠与。(概括叙述现象)过分地相信上天，结果把自己的主权毫无条件地送给了神明，而不知道自己的命运要靠自己主宰的道理。(分析现象的危害)只有自信才能主宰自己的命运：黑暗的可以变成光明，悲伤的可以化为幸福，崎岖不平的道路可以铺成平坦光明的坦途。(阐释道理)要相信自己的生活幸福、精神愉快、前途光明都得靠自己争取，凡事靠自己的双手去创造，比依赖神明的支配不是更加实惠吗?(揭示普遍道理)

【分析】观点要靠事实说话，但这绝不意味着可以用观点加材料的简单公式便可以自然地得出结论。要知道，再典型的事例也只是个案，现象的背后都可能包含普遍的道理，但需要科学的归纳，理性的提炼。这个归纳和提炼的过程就是从感觉中提升感悟的过程。//这种思路通常的组织形式是：①段首观点句，②引用具体的事例(可以是单个经历，也可以是多则事件;可以是百态列举，也可以是世象组合。引用事例要把握一个尺度，如果是引用单个经历可以适当详细些，如果是多则事件就要采用排比或者定语扩展的方式记述，千万不能逐一展开详细的描述)，③对事件作分析评价，④揭示出普遍的社会属性或人生道理。

例如：《还有一个苹果》

坚定的信念是摆脱困境的制胜法宝。(段首观点句)//一场突然而至的沙尘暴，让一个穿越沙漠的独行侠迷失了方向，更可怕的是他的干粮和水包不幸被风暴卷走。翻遍所有的衣袋，他只找到一个泛青的酸苹果。可就是这个不起眼的苹果让他找到了求生的信念。他走过了不知多远的路程，摔了不知多个跟头，嘴唇干裂了无数道口子，衣服经历了无数便湿了又干，干了又湿的反复折腾。他的心中一直默念着：“我还有一个苹果……”，三天后，他终于走出了沙漠。(描述一个具体的事例)//沙漠独行侠的经历让我们悟出了一个人生的命题：只要你信念的旗帜不倒，你就又走出困境的可能。//在生命的旅程中，我们常常会遇到始料不及的挫折或失败，会身陷意外的困境，心遭不测的打击，这时，不要轻易地放弃。其实，只要心存不灭的信念，努力寻找，你会惊讶地发现事情远非想象的那么糟糕。 (对事件作分析评价)//只要你有战胜困难的勇气，你一定能够找到摆脱危险，渡过难关的“苹果”，握紧她，就没有穿越不了的沙漠。(揭示普遍的规律)

【解析】观点+事例+分析探究原因、目的等+阐述意义与价值等/重要意义、危害、严重后果(正反)

二、要掌握常规的展开方式

如何展开核心语段?最好的方法就是：以事实论据为基础，综合运用假设分析、比较分析、因果分析、引用分析、类比分析等。

1、假设分析。就是写完事例论据后，用假设的方法进行推理。(事例后+假设推理)

【示例】《耐住寂寞》

德国康德是闻名世界的大哲学家。但他一生都生活在一个小镇上，远离尘嚣，没有接受任何媒体的吹捧，没有参加过什么名流聚会，没有什么领导接见的风光，他在寂寞中领悟、思考、探索天地的哲理，路不断地在寂寞下延伸。(事例)//(假设)//如果他耐不住寂寞，把时间、精力都用于出名和享受世俗的热闹上，他的一生可能会“丰富”些，但是，他能成为德国古典哲学的宗师吗?

【示例】学会“照镜子”方能正确认识自己、提高自己。(观点)李世民懂得镜子的作用，能把魏征批评他的话写在屏风上，当作“镜子”，随时对照。又能看出“以铜为镜，可以正衣冠;以古为镜，可以知兴替;以人为镜，可以明得失。”(事例)//这难道不是一个很会“照镜子”的人吗?李世民正是做到了“以人为镜”“以古为镜”，学会在人们的各种批评、意见中认识自己，而成为一代名君。(评论)//假如当初唐太宗非但不听取魏征的逆耳忠言，而且因丑处被照，短处被揭，恼羞成怒而将“镜子”弃之，砸之，又哪能出现“贞观之治”的太平盛世?(假设推理)

▲语段模式：观点+事例+例后评论+例后假设推理

【方法点拨】(假言分析法)进行假设性的分析，如果你举的例子是正面的，那么你就从反面来假设分析;你举的例子是反面例子，你就从正面来进行假设。

宋代盛行的一种中国文学体裁，宋词是一种相对于古体诗的新体诗歌之一，小编收集了宋词的写作方法，欢迎阅读。

(一)什么是词

词最初称为“曲词”或“曲子词”，是配音乐的。后来逐渐和音乐分离了，成为诗的别体，所以有人把词称为“诗馀”。由于文人的词深受律诗的影响，所以词中的律句特别多。词是长短句，但是全篇的字数、句数是一定的，每句的字数、平仄也是一定的。

词大致可以分为三类：(1)小令;(2)中调;(3)长调。有人认为：58字以内为小令，59～90字为中调，91字以上为长调。这种分法未必科学，但大概情况还是如此的。

(二)词牌的来历

词牌，就是词的格式的名称。词的格式和律诗不同，律诗只有四种格式，而词则总共有两千多种格式(按钦定词谱)。词的这些格式称为词谱。

关于词牌的来源，大概有下面三种情况：

(1)本来是乐曲的名称。如《菩萨蛮》、《西江月》、《风入松》、《蝶恋花》等。这些有的来自于民间，有的来自于宫廷或官方。

(2)摘取一首词中的几个字作为词牌。

(3)本来就是词的题目。《浪淘沙》咏的是浪淘沙，《更漏子》咏夜，《抛球乐》咏抛球，等等。这是最普遍的。凡是词牌下面注明“本意”的，就是说，词牌同时是词题，不另有题目了。

但是，绝大多数的词都不是用“本意”的，因此，词牌之外还有词题。一般在词牌下面或后面注明词题。这种情况下，词题和词牌没有任何联系。一首《浪淘沙》可以完全不提到浪和沙;一首《忆江南》也可以完全不提到江南。这样，词牌只不过是词谱的代号罢了。

(三)单调、双调、三叠、四叠

词有单调、双调、三叠、四叠的分别。

1、单调的词往往就是一首小令，它很象一首诗，不过是长短句罢了。

2、双调的词可以是小令、中调或长调。双调就是把一首词分成前后(或上下)两阕。两阕的字数相等或基本相等平仄、句式相同或部分相同，也可以完全不同。字数、平仄、句式相同的就象一首曲子配着两段歌词。字数、平仄、句式不相同的，往往是开头几句不一样，叫做“换头”。

3、三叠就是三段，如《兰陵王》、《西河》等。四叠就是四段，仅《莺啼序》一调。不再详述!

二、正体和变体

(一)正体和变体，二者的区别和联系

在读宋词时，有时会遇到这样一种情况，两首词的词牌一样，但是字数、句数、句读、押韵等方面却不完全相同，这是因为词牌有正体和变体之分。如《卜算子》：

《卜算子》

四十四字 双调。别名:《缺月挂疏桐》《百尺楼》《楚天遥》《眉峰碧》等

●正体

仄仄仄平平，仄仄平平仄。仄仄平平仄仄平，仄仄平平仄。

仄仄仄平平，仄仄平平仄。仄仄平平仄仄平，仄仄平平仄。

《卜算子》宋· 苏轼

缺月挂疏桐，漏断人初静。时见幽人独往来，缥缈孤鸿影。

惊起却回头，有恨无人省。拣尽寒枝不肯栖，寂寞沙洲冷。

《卜算子 》宋·陆游

驿外断桥边，寂寞开无主。已是黄昏独自愁，更著风和雨。

无意苦争春，一任群芳妒。零落成泥碾作尘，只有香如故。

●变体(一)

下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，四十四字

例：《卜算子》宋·严蕊

不是爱风尘，似被前缘误。花落花开自有时，总赖东君主。

去也终须去，住也如何住!若得山花插满头，莫问奴归处。

●变体(二)首句变“平平仄仄平”，四十四字

《卜算子》宋·杨冠清

苍生喘未苏，贾笔论孤愤。文采风流今尚存，毫发无遗恨。

凄恻近长沙，地僻秋将尽。长使英雄泪满襟，天意高难问。

●变体(三)上下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，四十四字

《卜算子》宋·石孝友

见也如何暮，别也如何遽。别也应难见也难，后会无凭据。

去也如何去，住也如何住。住也应难去也难，此际难分付。

●变体(四)下阕末句变“仄仄仄，平平仄”，四十五字

《卜算子》李之仪

我住长江头，君住长江尾。日日思君不见君，共饮长江水。

此水几时休，此恨何时已。只愿君心似我心，定不负、相思意。

●变体(五)上阕首句变“平平仄仄平”下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，末句变成“平仄仄，平平仄”，四十五字。

《卜算子》宋·徐俯

天生百种愁，挂在斜阳树。绿叶阴阴自得春，草满莺啼处。

不见凌波步，空忆如簧语。柳外重重叠叠山，遮不断、愁来路。

●变体(六)上阕首句变“平平仄仄平”下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄”，上下阕末句变成“仄平仄，平平仄”。四十六字

《卜算子》宋·杜安世

尊前歌一曲，歌里千重意。才欲歌时泪已流，恨应更、多于泪。

试问缘何事?不语如痴醉。我亦情多不忍闻，怕和我、成憔悴。

●变体(七)上下阕首句变“仄仄平平仄” 上阕末句“仄仄仄，平平仄”，下阕末句“平平仄仄平平仄”，四十七字

《眉峰碧》宋·无名氏

蹙破眉峰碧，纤手还重执。镇日相看未足时，忍便使鸳鸯隻!

薄暮投村驿，风雨愁通夕。窗外芭蕉窗里人，分明叶上心头滴。

●综述：上下阕首句可以换“(仄)仄平平仄”，并入韵;或者用“平平仄仄平”。上下阕末句可以换成“(仄)(仄)仄，平平仄”。在《眉峰碧》里，下阕末句变成了“平平仄仄平平仄”。除掉《眉峰碧》以外，44～46字体总共变化组合为36种。据《唐宋词学大辞典》，《卜算子》有变体30余种。 但是众多的体，只有一种使用最多，便成了正体。 正体和变体之间，既有相同之处，使它们共有一个词牌名，又有不同之处，区别成许多变体，还生成一些别名。

(二)同调异名

同样一个词牌，可以有不同的名称，《忆江南》又名《望江南》《江南好》《春去也》《望江楼》《梦江南》《望江梅》等。《菩萨蛮》 又名《子夜歌》《重叠金》《梅花句》等。《卜算子》又名《缺月挂疏桐》《百尺楼》《楚天遥》《眉峰碧》等。

贺铸是一个比较喜欢新创别名的词人，很多词牌的多数别名都是贺铸创造的，这给读者带来不少麻烦。在写词时，除特殊需要，最好用正名，不要用别名。

(三)同名异调

还有一种情况，两首词的词牌名一样，可是格式迥然不同!这属于同名异调。例如：《如梦令》和《阮郎归》都有一个别名叫《宴桃源》;《浪淘沙》和《谢池春》都有一个别名叫《卖花声》。这样的情况还有许多。

三、填词

(一)依声填词

细分为二种：

1、词人精通音律，会自己作曲，可以直接按曲谱填词!又称“按谱填词”柳永、周邦彦、姜夔、吴文英等人属此!

2、词人不会作曲，但是能听懂曲调，按曲调填词，又称“按箫填词”。苏轼、秦观、贺铸、辛弃疾等属此!

(二)依句填词

词人不懂音律，只能按前人作品的句式、每句的平仄格式填词。陆游、刘过等人属此，南宋多数词人都如此。这种填词法填出来的作品和依声填词的作品在平仄上是看不出来的，现在按词谱填词属此。

(三)自度曲和自过腔

通晓音律的词人，自摆歌词，又能自己谱写新的曲调，这叫做自度曲，有时也叫自度腔。

宋代有不少词人，都深通音乐，他们做了词，便自己能够作曲，故词集中 常见有“自度曲”。一般说来凡是自度曲，至少都应当注明这个曲子的宫调，或者在词序中说明。

自过腔和自度曲的含义是不同的。“过腔”，仅是音律上的改变，并不影响到歌词句格。所谓“过腔”者，是从此一腔调过入另一腔调，念奴娇的腔调稍变，即可另外题一个调名曰湘月。但这仅是歌曲腔调的改动，并不影响到歌词句格。后世词家，已不懂宋词音律，只能以词调的句格同异为类别，无法从句法相同的两首词中区别其腔调之不同。念奴娇和湘月，永遇乐和消息，句法既然一样，从文学形式的角度来看，湘月即念奴娇， 消息即永遇乐。至于二者之间，腔调不同，却不能从字句中看得出来。

自过腔既然不是创调，它就和自度曲不同。但有些宋代词人还是把自过腔编到自制曲中，因此，有些时候仍把自过腔作为自度曲的。

四、词的平仄规律。

词的平仄句法是有规律的，但是又比律诗复杂许多。

(一)“句”与“豆”

词的句法里有“句”和“豆(读)”。句，大家都不难理解。豆是什么呢?它是词的特点之一。

1、一字豆

介绍词谱时，有的句子是上一下四，这第一个字就是一字豆。这种五字句相当于一字豆加上一个四字句，和律诗中的律句是不一样的。例如：辛弃疾《沁园春》“正惊湍直下”应该读成“正——惊湍直下”而不能读成“正惊——湍直下”。一字豆常用仄声，仄声中又常用去声，很少用平声。

2、三字豆

还有的句子是上三下四、上三下五、上三下六等等。例如：《满江红》“凭栏处、潇潇雨歇。”就是上三下四，前三字就是三字豆!不能读成“凭栏——处潇——潇雨歇。”三字豆常用仄平平、仄仄平、仄仄仄、仄平仄、平仄仄、平平仄，少用平仄平，禁止用平平平，切记。

(二)律句和拗句;1～11字句的规律。

介绍诗律时我们谈论过律诗的句子有律句和拗句之分，同样，词的句子也有律句和拗句之分。而且有许多相似点，此外，词的拗句还可以细分为常见拗句、少见拗句和罕见拗句。常见拗句使用频率高，接近某些律句。少见拗句频率低，一般不用，特殊情况下可以使用。罕见拗句很罕见，往往见于少见词牌(特别是长调)，而且是该词调的特征性句子。

1、一字句 律句：平 仄

一字句很罕见，《十六字令》的第一句是一字句“平。”《钗头凤》上下阕末句可以看作叠用的三个一字句“仄、仄、仄。”。

2、二字句

律句：平平、平仄。 少见拗句：仄仄。 罕见拗句：仄平

“平平”、“平仄”常用，往往要入韵。而“仄仄”很少见，“仄平”更罕见。

(1)用“平平”的例如《南乡子》上下阕第四句：

《南乡子·登京口北固亭有怀》宋·辛弃疾

何处望神州?满眼风光北固楼。千古兴亡多少事?悠悠!不尽长江滚滚流。

年少万兜鍪，坐断东南战未休。天下英雄谁敌手?曹刘!生子当如孙仲谋。

(2)用“平仄”的例如《如梦令》第五、六句，而且常用叠句：

《如梦令》 宋·李清照

昨夜雨疏风骤，浓睡不消残酒。试问卷帘人，却道海棠依旧。知否?知否?应是绿肥红瘦!

(3)有些词调下阕首句是五字句或六字句，可以拆成2+3或2+4的句式。这时的二字句必须入韵。例如：

《满庭芳》下阕首句“平平平仄仄”可以变成“平平，平仄仄。”

《霜天晓角》下阕首句“(平)平平仄仄”可以变成“(平)仄、平仄仄。”“仄仄”也见于这句。

《沁园春》下阕首句可以变成“平平，(仄)仄平平。”

3、三字句

律句：平平仄、平仄仄、仄平平、仄仄平。

常见拗句：仄仄仄、仄平仄。

少见拗句：平仄平、平平平。

(1)律句如果单独使用，往往不用“仄仄平”。“平平仄”和“平仄仄”往往可以变通。

(2)拗句“仄平仄”往往可以替换“平(仄)仄”。“仄仄仄”往往可以用“仄平仄”、“平仄仄”等变通。

(3)“平仄平”、“平平平”较少见，《长相思》上下阕首句可以用。例如：

林逋《长相思》

吴山青，越山青。两岸青山相送迎。谁知离别情。

君泪盈，妾泪盈。罗带同心结未成，江头潮已平。

(4)两个三字句组合，常见的有：

平仄仄，仄平平。《捣练子》、《渔父》、《鹧鸪天》等。在小令里，这种格式非常严格，不能变通。在长调里，前句前2字往往可平可仄。切记：后句第二字不能用仄。

仄平平，平仄仄。《苏幕遮》、《祝英台近》等。

(仄)(仄)仄，(仄)平仄。《相见欢》、《满江红》等。

仄平平，仄平平。《江城子》。

仄仄平，仄仄平。《长相思》。

(5)三个、四个三字句组合。常见的有：

平仄仄，仄平平。仄平平。《诉衷情》

(仄)(平)仄，(平)(仄)仄，仄平平。《水调歌头》、《六州歌头》

一字豆领四个三字句，如《六州歌头》下阕首句：仄——平(平)仄，(平)(平)仄，(平)(平)仄，仄平平。

写读后感的重点应是联系实际发表感想。下面是小编整理了读后感的写作格式，欢迎阅读。

一、格式和写法

读后感通常有三种写法：一种是缩写内容提纲，一种是写阅读后的体会感想，一种是摘录好的句子和段落。题目可以用《×××读后感》，也可以用《读×××有感》。

二、要选择自己感受最深的东西去写，这是写好读后感的关键。

看完一本书或一篇文章，你的感受可能很多，如果面面俱到像开杂货铺一样，把自己所有的感受都一股脑地写上去，什么都有一点，什么也不深不透，重点部分也像蜻蜓点水一样一擦而过，必然使文章平淡，不深刻。所以写感受前要认真思考、分析，对自己的感想加以提炼，选择自己感受最深的去写。你可以抓住原作的中心思想写，也可以抓住文中自己感受最深的一个情节、一个人物、一句闪光的语言来写，最好是突出一点，深入挖掘，写出自己的真情实感，总之，感受越深，表达才能越真切，文章才能越感人。

三、要密切联系实际，这是读后感的重要内容。

写读后感的重点应是联系实际发表感想。我们所说的联系实际范围很广泛，可以联系个人实际，也可以联系社会实际，可以是历史教训，也可以是当前形势，可以是童年生活，也可以是班级或家庭状况，但最主要的是无论怎样联系都要突出时代精神，要有较强的时代感。

四、要处理好“读”与“感”的关系，做到议论，叙述，抒情三结合。

读后感是议论性较强的读书笔记，要用切身体会，实践经验和生动的事例来阐明从“读”中悟出的道理。因此，读后感中既要写“读”，又要写“感”，既要叙述，又必须说理。叙述是议论的基础，议论又是叙述的深化，二者必须结合。

读后感以“感”为主。要适当地引用原文，当然引用不能太多，应以自己的语言为主。在表现方法上，可用夹叙夹议的写法，议论时应重于分析说理，事例不宜多，引用原文要简洁。在结构上，一般在开头概括式提示“读”，从中引出“感”，在着重抒写感受后，结尾又回扣“读”。

五、叙原文不要过多，要体现出一个“简”字。

六、要审清题目。

在写作时，要分辨什么是主要的，什么是次要的，力求做到“读”能抓住重点，“感”能写出体会。?

七、要选择材料。

读是写的基础，只有读得认真仔细，才能深入理解文章内容，从而抓住重点，把握文章的思想感情，才能有所感受，有所体会;只有认真读书才能找到读感之间的联系点来，这个点就是文章的中心思想，就是文中点明中心思想的句子。对一篇作品，写体会时不能面面俱到，应写自己读后在思想上、行动上的变化，摘取其中的某一点做文章。?

八，写读后感应以所读作品的内容简介开头，然后，再写体会。

原文内容往往用3～4句话概括为宜。结尾也大多再回到所读的作品上来。要把重点放在“感”字上，切记要联系自己的生活实际。?

九，写读后感的注意事项：

①写读后感绝不是对原文的抄录或简单地复述，不能脱离原文任意发挥，应以写“体会”为主。②要写得有真情实感。应是发自内心深处的感受，绝非“检讨书”或“保证书”。③要写出独特的新鲜感受，力求有新意的见解来吸引读者或感染读者。

十、要写关于学习的读后感应该读什么有感呢?

(1) 引——围绕感点，引述材料。简述原文有关内容。 读后感重在“感”，而这个“感”是由特定的“读”生发的，“引”是“感”的落脚点，所谓“引”就是围绕感点，有的放矢的引用原文：材料精短的，可全文引述;材料长的，或摘录“引”发“感”的关键词、句，或概述引发“感”的要点。不管采用哪种方式引述，“引”都要简练、准确，有针对性。如所读书，文的篇名，作者，写作年代，以及原书或原文的内容概要。写这部分内容是为了交代感想从何而来，并为后文的议论作好铺垫。这部分一定要突出一个"简"字，决不能大段大段地叙述所读书，文的具体内容，而是要简述与感想有直接关系的部分，略去与感想无关的东西。 (2)概:概括本文的主要内容,要简练,而且要把重点写出来.

(2) 议——分析材料，提练感点。亮明基本观点。 在引出“读”的内容后，要对“读”进行一番评析。既可就事论事对所“引”的内容作一番分析;也可以由现象到本质，由个别到一般的作一番挖掘;对寓意深的材料更要作一番分析，然后水到渠成地“亮”出自己的感点。要选择感受最深的一点，用一个简洁的句子明确表述出来。这样的句子可称为"观点句"。这个观点句表述的，就是这篇文章的中心论点。"观点句"在文中的位置是可以灵活的，可以在篇首，也可以在篇末或篇中。初学写作的同学，最好采用开门见山的方法，把观点写在篇首。

(3) 联——联系实际，纵横拓展。围绕基本观点摆事实讲道理。 写读后感最忌的是就事论事和泛泛而谈。就事论事撒不开，感不能深入，文章就过于肤浅。泛泛而谈，往往使读后感缺乏针对性，不能给人以震撼。联，就是要紧密联系实际，既可以由此及彼地联系现实生活中相类似的现象，也可以由古及今联系现实生活中的相反的种种问题。既可以从大处着眼，也可以从小处入手。当然在联系实际分析论证时，还要注意时时回扣或呼应“引”部，使“联”与“引””藕”断而“丝”连这部分就是议论文的本论部分，是对基本观点(即中心论点)的阐述，通过摆事实讲道理证明观点的正确性，使论点更加突出，更有说服力。这个过程应注意的是，所摆事实，所讲道理都必须紧紧围绕基本观点，为基本观点服务。

(4)结——总结全文，升华感点。围绕基本观点联系实际。一篇好的读后感应当有时代气息，有真情实感。要做到这一点，必须善于联系实际。这"实际"可以是个人的思想，言行，经历，也可以是某种社会现象。联系实际时也应当注意紧紧围绕基本观点，为观点服务，而不能盲目联系，前后脱节。结既可以回应前文，强调感点;也可以提出希望，发出号召。不管采用哪种方式结尾，都必须与前文贯通，浑然一体。读后感始终要受“读”的约束，开头要引“读”，中间还要不时地回扣“读”的内容，结尾也要恰当回扣“读”的内容不放松。

以上四点是写读后感的基本思路，但是这思路不是一成不变的，要善于灵活掌握。比如，"简述原文"一般在"亮明观点"前，但二者先后次序互换也是可以的。再者，如果在第三个步骤摆事实讲道理时所摆的事实就是社会现象或个人经历，就不必再写第四个部分了。

话题是“出人意料和情理之中”，既为出人意料，自然超乎寻常，却在情理之中，当然并不怪诞，集二者于一身，当是偶然与必然的统一。因此，第一种写法可以用偶然性与必然性对立统一的哲学原理来剖析“出人意料和情理之中”的生活现象。注意：不能离开话题大谈特谈偶然性和必然性。

第二种写法是利用提供的材料，进一步列举类似的例子展开议论。玻尔的回答不是人们所能意料到的，但又有一定的道理，因为“不怕在学生面前显露我的愚蠢”表现了玻尔实事求是的科学态度、谦虚的治学精神和博大的胸怀，以及师生之间平等相处坦诚相待的人际关系，而这些都是创建一流学派应该具备的必要条件，所以在情理之中。明乎此，可以推出论点“出人意料”而又在“情理之中”的回答往往揭示了成功的秘诀，然后再举例论证。比如，有人问一位诺贝尔奖获得者在什么地方学到的东西最主要，学者说在幼儿园，因为他在幼儿园学到了把自己的东西分一半给小伙伴;不是自已的东西不要拿;东西要放整齐;吃饭前要洗手;做错了事情要表示歉意……这位学者回答在幼儿园学到的东西最主要，确实出人意料;但他在幼儿园里学到的是美好的品德和良好的生活习惯，为后来的成功打下了基础，所以又在情理之中。

第三种写法可以跳出材料，另举例子围绕“出人意料和情理之中”谈开去，可谓海阔天空。比如，美国海军次长金波尔阻挠钱学森回国，他在给美国移民局的电报中声称：“我宁可把这家伙枪毙，也不让他离开美国。那些对我们来说极为宝贵的情况，他知道得太多了。无论在哪里，他都抵得上5个师。”说手无缚鸡之力的钱学森“抵得上5个师”——出人意料;从中看到知识的力量——情理之中。这样一来，围绕“出人意料和情理之中”的话题谈知识就是力量，把生题变成熟题，下笔就容易多了。但要注意，如果撇开话题去写知识就是力量便离题而去了。

上面说的是议论文写作，如果写记叙文，只要事情的结果能出人意料而过程能合乎情理即可，不过要善于扣题，要有点睛之笔，以免遭误判

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。

团结

(1)理论论据

三人一条心，其力之大可断金。

郭沫若《国庆颂》

互相取长补短，才能有进步。 毛泽东《整顿党的作风》

大家不能互相了解，正像一大盘散沙。 鲁迅《无声的中国》三兄四弟一条心，门前黄土变成金。 中国谚语

当坏人们聚成一团的时候，好人也必须联合起来，否则他们就会在微不足道的抵抗中一个个倒下，成为得不到同情的牺牲品。 [英]伯克《关于目前不满情绪根源的感想》

最弱者的力量如果联合起来，那也是非同小可的。 [古希腊]荷马《伊利昂记》

人道以合群为义，以合群而强。 康有为《物质救国论》

大家为一人，一人为大家。 [法]大仲马《三个火枪 手》

全世界无产者，联合起来。 [德]马克思、恩格斯《共产党宣言》

(2)事实论据

郭子仪、李光弼团结对敌

唐玄宗时，郭子仪和李光弼曾同是朔方节度使安思顺的属下部将。两人之间有矛盾，平时互不讲话。后来安禄山叛乱，郭子仪升任朔方节度使，统兵抵御。李光弼就成了郭子仪的部将。皇帝命令郭子仪率部出征，李光弼担心郭子仪会利用手中权力寻机报复。李光弼硬着头皮对郭子仪说：“我过去得罪您，是我的不是，今后不管处置我，我无怨言，只希望高抬贵手放过我妻儿”没等李光弼说完，郭子仪紧紧抱住李光弼，满眼流泪地说：“国家危急，百姓遭殃，正需要我们同心协力，眼下正需要你这样人才，此时，怎能计较个人恩怨？”

从此，郭李同心，将帅协力，在平息安史叛乱中，战功卓越著。维勒与李比希亲密无间

维勒和李比希都是19世纪德国杰出化学家。他们两人的性格迥异，李比希激烈，爽朗，风风火，像一团烈火；维勒平和、沉稳、文文静静，像一盆冷

水。但两个感情很好，亲密无间。他们密切配合，致力于科学研究。共同对无机化学、有机化学作出了贡献，同是有机化学的创始者。

李比希在自传中写道：“我的最好运气，就是有位志同道合的朋友。多年来我和这位朋友真诚合作，毫无隔阂手携手地向前，这一位行动时，那一位已经准备好。”

由于两人的真诚合作，因此，才创造出科学研究上的辉煌。

⑦成熟的麦子低垂着头，那是在教我们谦逊；一群蚂蚁能抬走大骨头，那是在教我们团结；温柔的水滴穿岩石，那是在教我们坚韧；蜜蜂在花丛中忙碌，那是在教我们勤劳。

②六个大国虽强大却并不团结，甚至隔岸观火，勾心斗角，居然被地处西北的秦国各个击破；

蚂蚁的分工与合作

蚂蚁是我们最常见的昆虫之一。在不大的蚂蚁家族中,有着复杂却又严格的分工与合作。蚁后,也叫蚁皇,是一族之主,专管产卵繁殖,一般一群只有一个。雄蚁,专与蚁后交配,交配后即死亡。工蚁,是蚁群中的主要成员,专司觅食、饲养幼蚁、侍候蚁后、搬家清扫等勤杂工作。兵蚁,个头较大,两颚发达,是蚁群中的保卫者,担负着本蚁群的安全,如有外蚁入侵,或争夺食物时,必誓死决斗。蚂蚁家族中的每一个成员既不多做也不少做,缺了其中任何一个环节都不行。蚂蚁家族正是凭借每一个成员的合作精神,才能生存下去。

把一滴水放到江河海洋里

相传佛祖释迦牟尼曾问弟子：“一滴水怎样才能不干涸”弟子们冥思苦想：“孤零零的一滴水，一阵风能把它吹没，一撮土能把它吸干，其寿命有几何怎么会不干呢”弟子们都回答不上来。释迦牟尼说：“把它放到江河海洋里去。”

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

身处农村的小学生从小活动范围有限，学生视野不开阔，对外面世界的了解并不像城市孩子，而农村的小学教师还有一大批是从前的社请教师转正过来的，他们其中好多都没有受过严格的师范教育，虽说已具备多年的教育教学经验，在新一论课程改革的背景下，教学方法依然显出无法适应的迹象，比如，为了让孩子能在考试之中得一个比较好的成绩，不昔花大量时间让学生们背诵《同步作文》《作文大全》等里的范文，致使形成比较别扭的习作，比如：

妈妈，我想对您说：为什么别人都有星期天，我却没有，每当我熬下星期五已经累得不行了，可您却给了我最大的压力，星期六不让我玩，就让我做作业，可是作业做的时间长了，也会让我厌烦。

……

有一次，学校组织春游，你却不让我去，后来我给我的几个朋友说了，是他们说服了你，你才让我去春游。

在路上我们蹦蹦跳跳的走着，我们玩了一会儿，就又到其他地方去，可您就是不让我去。

我就觉得很后悔，人家来了，说那儿的山多美水多美，当时我却为什么不能去，在回家的路上我们搭了个公共汽车，我突然间看见了一片白菜，我高呼起来，好大的白菜呀！有的同学听见了哈哈大笑起来，骂我傻瓜，人家说那是花菜，顿时我脸通红，像布不一样。

妈妈，请你还我星期八，为什么别人有星期天，我却没有，我真的很悲哀，为什么哥哥可以去玩，我不可以，我每天放学，您就让我做作业，我想拥有一个星期天为什么那么难？

——习作《我真想有一个星期八》

这篇作文题目与其为《我真想有一个星期八》，还不如命为《妈妈，我想对您说》更为恰当。文不对题，却强拉硬拽，很显然在进入考场前小作者已经准备了一篇作文。这样的作文教学存在的弊端在于：（1）在没有教会学生如何对待优秀范文的情况前，这种教法严重影响到学生的学习时间结构，徒增学生的学习负担。（2）破坏了正确认识作文乃至正确学习语文的观念，使语文的学习变得枯燥而没有生气。（3）虽然说我们可以在范文当中积累好词好句，但若教师对这篇范文的构思不加以引导，学生在考试作文中将生硬组织，甚至笑话百出。（4）最后，也是最重要的，这种做法严重的影响了作文的情感态度价值观导向，在这类习作中，作者之所写乃他人的感情，自我已不复存在。

叙事作文也是常考的作文类型，因此，下面是小编为大家整理的叙事作文写作方法，希望能帮到您！

叙述是文章的表达方式之一。叙述在表达上首先要做到要把写的人和事件交代明白，使文章线索清晰。叙述在记叙类文章中起着极为重要的作用。叙述一件事会有很多种手法，但是最常用的大体只有两种：顺叙和倒叙。

按照顺叙的写法一般是把人物的经历或事件发生、发展顺序进行一个排序来叙述。读者在读这样的顺叙的文章时便会轻而易举的把握住事情发展的来龙去脉。H版教材六年级第二学期课文《弹琴的姑娘》，说的是一个姑娘勤奋练琴的故事。文章叙述“我”不管是在一天中早上也好晚上也罢，都会在胡同里经常听到“叮咚！叮咚！叮叮咚咚！”的琴声，这样的声音一年四季皆是如此，从未断过。春去秋来、冬白夏绿，小姑娘的琴声从未断过。这篇文章利用时间这个线把所有的事都串了起来，从而说明弹琴姑娘练琴时的执着与坚持，同时融入“我”对琴声的感受和对姑娘的美好感情。由于作者成功地运用了顺叙的写法，故事情节显得清晰自然。

在运用顺叙的方式时，要注意用好表示时间或表示事件发生先后顺序的词语。另外，要避免平铺直叙，面面俱到。为此，要注意材料的取舍与详略。

倒叙不是按时间先后的顺序，而是将后发生的情况先写，然后再回转来交代事情发生、发展的经过。这种写法不仅能使文章曲折有致，波澜起伏，引人入胜，而且便于突出重点，吸引读者，增强艺术效果。

回忆性的文章，一般采用倒叙的记叙顺序，也就是从时间上来说，先写现在，再写过去。

倒叙法并不是把所有的内容都倒过来写，只是先叙后面发生的事情，再讲它的由来罢了。这样，就要注意处理好由倒叙转向顺叙时的文字衔接问题。要有一个很好的过渡，才不会给人以过于突然或是前后割裂的感觉。一般可用“事情的起因是……”“原来是……”或者用问句“为什么会……？”把结果与事情的起因衔接起来。

总之，叙述方式的选用，要从表达内容的需要出发。尤其是倒叙方式的运用，不要故弄玄虚，为倒叙而倒叙，这样，反而会适得其反。

导语：我们都知道思想离不开生活，一切皆从生活中来，一切也皆将回归生活，话题作文中的话题也更是如此，它们有的是对世界本质的反思，有的是要表达人们的一种愿望或想象，在课改教材中，这一部分内容也倍受重视，更有对人生经历、生命内涵的体悟。下面是小编给大家整理的高中话题作文写作方法与技巧内容，希望能给你带来帮助!

从生活体验、增加阅读量、思想角度、表达能力和文章结构等方面阐述了如何写好命题作文的方法和技巧。围绕命题作文的趋势和特点，对高中生如何写好命题作文提供了很好的参考方向。

关键词：命题作文；感悟；阅读个性；表达能力

近些年话题作文一直是高考的作文主流，可以说是称霸“考坛”，因此，是平时作文训练的重点。笔者认为，话题作文大大增强了对学生语言表达能力、分析概括能力以及个性思维能力的要求。只有敏锐的洞察力、较高的概括与表达能力以及真正属于自己的思想与体悟，才能较好地具体操作一个话题，因此，对处于对人生理解还在起步阶段的中学生来说，如何写好话题作文是一个很有研究价值的课题，在此笔者简单提供以下几点写作方法与技巧以供参考。

一、体味生活，感悟人生

我们都知道思想离不开生活，一切皆从生活中来，一切也皆将回归生活，话题作文中的话题也更是如此，它们有的是对世界本质的反思，有的是要表达人们的一种愿望或想象，在课改教材中，这一部分内容也倍受重视，更有对人生经历、生命内涵的体悟。

话题作文是要求学生对身边的一切都有敏锐的感悟力的一种作文形式，虽然它看似没有任何硬性要求，但学生的分数这些年来却呈下降趋势，这说明话题文比人们想象中的要难得多，中学生还处在人生旅程的起始阶段，必须培养自己在这个人生阶段的独特视角与感悟力。每个人只要细心观察，都可以轻易地从中领会出自己的真谛。因此，想写出一篇出彩的话题文，就必须善于观察生活、分析生活、总结生活。

二、认真阅读教材，同时尽量增加课外阅读量，从而积累词汇与语言，善于调遣各种知识储备

积累词汇的方法有许多种，当然最主要同时也是最重要的途径莫过于阅读书籍。书籍是人类的精神食粮，是千百年来人类圣哲思想的经典总汇，因此，要尽量增加自己的课外阅读量，多读些经典名著，陶冶自己的情操，认识这个世界。

有的学生课业繁重，对于课外阅读恐怕是有心无力，这也不要紧，每个学生身边都有一份非常好的阅读资料，那就是人手必备的语文教材。教材可以说是无数教育学家按照学生心理年龄与认知水平而打造出的完全符合其自身智力与能力发展的呕心之作，因此，只要能够有效地利用好自己的教材，调动多年学校学到的知识，那么成为一个有思想且能够出口成章的儒林学士则不成问题。

三、要有质疑与批判精神，只要思想积极，就要忠于自己的情感与体悟，勇敢、尽情地表达自己对世界、社会、历史、人生以及未来等的见解

这一点可以说是话题作文的本质所在，它没有固定的要求，却有最佳的选择角度，那就是理智、积极、个性、真实，而这所有的种种却又都取决于真实，如果你敢于把自己真实的想法付于笔纸，那么“文情并茂”中的“情”就可以轻易地表达了，而一篇优秀的文章也会“接近”完成。

但要注意的是个性并不等于不同，批判也并不是叛逆，两者不可混淆，不能一味地用“异于常人”作为个性的最佳代言，也切忌用叛逆来代替批判精神，这样很容易步入阅读与写作的误区。对理解文意毫无帮助，也最终会导致思维的一种批判模式，一旦这种模式在其心中根深蒂固，那么不仅会影响其阅读写作，其一生也终将活在吹毛求疵的误区中。

四、发挥自己形象思维的特长，经常练笔，挖掘自身的述说能力，从而写出真正符合自己特点的话题作文

在现实的作文写作中经常有这样一种怪现象，有很多学生在进行写作时，心中明明已满载乾坤，等到真正落笔时却词不达意，文章显得苍白无力，这种表达能力的缺乏必须经过“艰苦”的练笔来克服。我们现在的学生一般在小学阶段就开始接触作文，而所写的作文一般都是具有强烈叙事色彩的记叙文，因此，对于一个学生来说形象思维能力在小学阶段就得到了一定的锻炼，相对于议论思辨等能力来说具有更多的优势，因此，学生只要有意识地练习写作或诵读片段式记叙文（或称作叙事散文）、微型小说、故事、童话、寓言以及抒情散文等，就能够比较轻松地增强自己的表达能力，从而达到“我手写我口”的境界。

五、掌握最基本的一种话题作文结构，即“三段式”结构

在初中阶段学生在尽量提升作文布局的同时，必须掌握话题文，也同样适用于议论文与记叙文的一种基本结构形式，那就是

“总—分—总”结构，也可以说是“凤头、猪肚、豹尾”结构。初中语文教材上的课文范文，70%以上都是这种三段式结构，熟练地掌握这种文章结构，不但可以作为写文章的基本保证，而且当学生随着年龄的增长，认知能力进一步发展，对文章的理解达到更高一层的境界时，自然就会举一反三，以此为基础写出更多优异结构的美文了。

总的来说，提高话题作文的写作能力，只有教师平时多关注社会动态，感悟生活，再综合多方面的方法和技巧，方能写出精彩，写出创新！

写作技巧就是表现时运用的方法，是作者为表情达意而采取有效艺术手段。语文说明文的写作技巧，我们一起来了解一下。

一、 说明文的定义

说明文是以说明为主要表达方式来解说事物、阐明事理而给人知识的文章体裁。它通过揭示概念来说明事物特征、本质及其规律性。说明文一般介绍事物的形状、构造、类别、关系、功能，解释事物的原理、含义、特点、演变等。说明文实用性很强，它包括广告、说明书、提要、提示、规则、章程、解说词、科学小品等。

二、 说明文的特点

说明文的特点是说，而且具有一定的知识性。这种知识，或者来自有关科学研究资料，或者是亲身实践、调查、考察的所得，都具有严格的科学性。为了要把事物说明白，就必须把握事物的特征，进而揭示出事物的本质属性，即不仅要说明是什么，还要说明为什么是这样。应用性说明文一般只要求说明事物的特征，阐述性说明文则必须揭示出问题的本源和实质。 说明文是客观地说明事物的一种文体，目的在于给人以知识：或说明事物的状态、性质、功能，或阐明事理。《中国石拱桥》属于前者，它以赵州桥和卢沟桥为例说明中国石拱桥不但形式优美，而且结构坚固的特征。《大自然的语言》属于后者，文章科学地说明了物候学知识。说明事物特点和阐明事理是说明文的两种类型。

三、 说明文的常用说明方法及作用

1、说明的方法有：下定义,作诠释,举例子,列数字,打比方,作比较,分类别,引资料,摹状貌,做图表 2、明白各种方法的作用。

举例子：这里使用了举例子的说明方法，具体说明了 这种说明方法的作用是使说明的对象具体形象，便于读者理解。

作比较：这里拿和作比较，突出(具体)说明了 作比较用于突出强调被说明对象的特点(地位、影响等)。

列数字：这里使用了列数字的说明方法，准确说明了 (列举了的数字，准确说明了)其作用是使说明准确无误，令读者信服。

分类别：分类别的作用是使说明条理清楚。

打比方：它的主要作用是使说明对象生动形象，增强文章的趣味性。

作诠解：用于解释被说明内容的成因及内在联系。

下定义：其作用是科学准确地解释说明对象的内涵，使说明更严密。

画图表：可使说明内容直观形象。

摹状貌：使说明生动形象，使文章更具可读性。

3、有时说明文借用其他修辞手法来帮助说明，这些手法的作用分析应当紧紧围绕说明对象，依照说明文的要求。

四、 如何写好说明文

如何使说明文物理并重、形神兼备的呢?首要的一点是观察。说明文写作的前提是对要说明的事物非常熟悉。要做到这一点，就要养成认真观察、深入了解的习惯：

观察要有针对性。要带着问题观察，而不是走马观花、浮光掠影。最好能在观察前列出观察提纲，观察时要记笔记、画图标。要善于提出问题。

观察时要分清主次。这就要求我们注意观察的顺序。观察有概括性观察和特写性观察之分。前一种方法有助于抓住事物的概貌，后者则利于把握观察对象的细节和特征。由概括到特写、由全局到局部，是观察的一般原理。

观察重在事物的形。要想传神，写出事物的内涵、原理等，则需要有很好的查阅资料、作调查的能力。比如我们要写一篇文章来说明洛阳牡丹。在写好它的形状、颜色、品种之外，如果能够考察一下洛阳牡丹的来历、其中的牡丹名品在培育中的科学原理，这篇文章就会有说服力，使读者更深刻地认识到洛阳牡丹的文化特色。这就要求我们具备相当的知识积累、广阔的知识面和优秀的调查能力。作为小学生，应当从小注重积累知识和调查能力的训练。比如通过剪报、记笔记、上图书馆和阅览室等途径来有意识地训练自己。

写作说明文还要注意说明的顺序。有合理的顺序，文章才能条理清晰，让人看得明白。说明顺序一般有三种，即空间顺序、时间顺序、逻辑顺序。间顺序一般有从上到下、从左到右、从前到后、从远到近等。时间顺序一般有从古到今、从过去到现在等。逻辑顺序有从现象到本质、从原因到结果、从主要到次要、从整体到部分、从概括到具体等。什么是合理的顺序呢?这要根据人们认识事物的过程以及说明对象本身的特征、规律而定。说明事物的形状、构造等，往往以空间为顺序;说明事物的成因、方法，往往以时间为顺序;说明事物的事理，往往以逻辑关系为顺序。

当然，大多数说明文会综合使用多种说明顺序。因此，在写作时，我们要合理地安排好说明顺序，理清说明文的结构层次。常用的结构层次有并列式、层进式和总分式三种。比如我们以水为题目进行写作，可以先写水的外形特征，再写水的分类，然后写水的用途，这是并列式的写作层次。我们也可以先写水的外形，再写水的成因，最后写水给人类带来的利与害，这是层进式的结构层次。先概括水的用途和特征，再一一细述，就是总分式。结构层次能力需发同学们在长期的写作过程中培养。

阅读下面的材料。根据要求作文：

美国女作家海伦·凯勒，从小双目失明，她凭着超人的意志和智慧，成为被世人所仰慕的一颗明星。下面是从她写的《假如给我三天光明》中摘录的一些语段，读后按要求作文。

要是人们把活着的每一天都看作是生命的最后一天该有多好啊！这就更显出生命的价值。如果认为岁月还相当漫长，我们的每一天就不会过得那么有意义，有朝气，我们对生活就不会充满热情。

只有那些瞎了的人才更加珍惜光明。事情往往就是这样，一旦失去了的东西，人们才会留恋它。

我有这样的想法：如果让每个人在成年后的某个阶段瞎上几天，聋上几天该有多好。黑暗将使他们更加珍惜光明，寂静将教会他们真正领略喧哗的欢乐。

我多么渴望看看这世上的一切，如果说我凭我的触觉能得到如此大的乐趣，那么能让我亲眼目睹一下该有多好。奇怪的是．明眼人对这一切却如此淡漠！那点缀世界的五彩缤纷和千姿百态在他们看来是那么的平庸。也许人就是这样：有了的东西不知道欣赏，没有的东西又一味追求。

请你思考一下这个问题：假如你只有三天的光明，你将如何使用你的眼睛？想到三天以后。太阳再也不会在你的眼前升起，你又将如何度过那宝贵的三日？

请以感悟光阴为话题作文。

注意：

①立意自定；

②文体自选；

③题目自拟；

④不少于800字。

【写作指导】

光阴就是时间。关于光阴的名言，古今中外很多。比如，盛年不重来，一日难再晨。及时当勉励，岁月不待人。（陶渊明）莫等闲，自了少年头，空悲切。（岳飞）花有重开日，人无再少时。（关汉卿）我以为世界上最可贵的就是‘今’，最易丧失的也是‘今’。因为它最容易丧失，所以更觉得它可贵。（李大钊）时间，就像海绵里的水一样，只要你愿意挤，总还是有的。（鲁迅）你热爱生活吗？那么别浪费时间，因为时间是组成生命的材料。（富兰克林），这些都说明要珍惜时间。分析本话题提供的材料，从多角度说明时间之珍贵：如果把活着的每一天都看作生命的最后一天，生命就更有价值，对生活就会充满热情；失去的东西才知道留恋；如果每个人耳聋、眼瞎上几天，就会更加珍惜光阴；每个人都应珍惜自己所拥有的，因为时间无情；如果一个人的生命只有最后几天或只有三天的光明，应怎样度过？将名言和本话题所给的材料结合起来，选择一个自己较易把握的角度，选择自己擅长的文体．写出有特色的文章。

可写成议论性文章，也可写成记叙性文章。可以叙写自己的亲身经历、体验和感受，也可以编述故事、童话、寓言等。还可写成散文、诗歌、戏剧等文体。

做任何事情都要讲究门“门径”，门径便利，很快可以登堂入室。门径有新有旧，有巧有拙。只要行之有效，就是好方法。初学写作的中学生朋友要想很快进入作文的殿堂，无妨试试以下几种方法：

1、记日记。日记的内容广泛，学习生活中的所见、所闻、所感，都可以作为日记的内容，且形式自由，可长可短。因此，初学者坚持记日记，既能丰富自身的写作素材，又能提高自身的书面表达能力，还可以培养观察、辨析、审判能力。

2、写书评、影（视）评。我们看书、看^电.影（电视），难免会对书（影、视）中的情节、人物或作者的表示方法发表议论。假如能把这些议论记下来，久而久之，我们的写作能力和多篇能力便会得到迅速提高。

3、办手抄报。手抄报的内容可以是自身写的，也可以是从报刊上摘录来的有价值的文章。定期办手抄报可以提高自身的写作兴趣，能从摘录的过程中学到写法，从写的过程中得以练笔。同时又能培养自身的组稿、绘画、版面设计、书写能力。办好的手抄报又便于保管。

4、读后写。所谓“读后写”，就是选择一篇有价值有意义的文章，读过一两遍后，不看文章，凭记忆，把文章的内容具体地写出来。可以用文中的原句，也可用自身的语言，还可进行补充加工。写完后，与原文对照一下，看哪些语句没有把原文的内容充沛地表达出来，哪些语句使原文的内容更加丰富，更加感人。经常做这种练习，能不时地学习到写作的方法，同时又锻炼了自身的比较、记忆和发明能力，空虚自身的“语言仓库”。 以上四种训练方式，在培养作文能力的同时，又使其他方面的能力得以提高。喜好写作的初学者无妨一试。

比起昨天，今天的天气算是好多了，也许是上帝刻意安排.这个特殊的日子里，晴空万里，多少句"母亲节快乐"回荡在耳边.

从早晨开始，我就闷闷不乐，因为实在想不到要给妈妈什么礼物.后来，我想出了我认为最好的礼物送给妈妈.一见到妈妈，我就大声唱道："妈妈，母亲节快乐!世上只有妈妈好，有妈的孩子像块宝."唱着，一子扑到妈妈的怀里，"投进妈妈的怀抱，幸福少不了……"妈妈泪如泉涌,深情地抱着我，凝望着我,眼里充满慈爱和爱抚.看着懂事的我，长大的我，妈妈会心一笑……

妈妈，其实您知道的，女儿有千言万语想要对您说，然而，也全部溶入到这美妙的旋律，跳动的音符当中去了.这里不仅有女儿的心声，更多的是女儿对您无限的感激，真挚的爱.

总有一个人将我们支撑，总有一种爱让我们感动，心痛.啊!母亲，您就像一顶伞，一顶不平凡的伞.夏天，为我遮挡猛烈的阳光，冬天，让我躲避严厉的风雪.

如果你爱阳光，就请你爱你的母亲，因为世上没有一缕阳光比母爱温暖;如果你爱和风，就请你爱你的母亲，因为没有一阵微风比母爱温柔……如果你爱…，就请你爱你的母亲，因为世上一切的一切都比不上母爱坚韧，伟大，淳朴……