英语记叙文的写作技巧和方法【汇集20篇】

见字如见人，一手好字能给人一种很直观的美感，就算文章写的不错，主题鲜明，文字优美，意境深远，但是很难让人有读下去的欲望。要记得，书写是文章的服饰，标点是文章的呼吸，丑陋是永远打不赢的“官司”。我们要尽最大的努力展示出自己的书写水平：一要端正，二要清楚。三要美观。标点也是文章准确表情达意的工具。不要只是“一点到底”。不要只会单纯地使用逗号、句号，一篇文章，应该能够准确、灵活、生动地使用六七种标点符号。书写美观了，“感情分”也就上去了!

1、书写工整，拿到卷面分，更拿到印象分;

2、标题鲜明，不仅要扣题，更要不“土气”;

3、开篇和结尾可以根据时间状况选择先打草稿，争取简练精彩，展示扣题和文采。(不仅改卷老师印象好，更能降低偏离主题的风险);

4、文章分段比例安排好。(小编有一句：每段不要超5行，开头结尾2行半，整篇文章5、6段);

5、材料鲜活，这需要平时高质量的积累和阅读;

6、锤炼语言，要有几句精炼的有内涵的语句升华主题，增加文章的思想深度。(这需要大量的积累，和一定思辨能力)

7、时间分配要合理，要有时间观念，要留出充裕作文时间进行充足的思考。(最好确保至少几分钟的审题时间)，同时也要注意时间安排，把握节奏。

8、注意不要写错别字，按往年标准是1字1分(不重复)，扣满5分!有时间的同学要进行检查。

9、一定要满足字数条件，不足者按往年标准，是每50字1分扣的!

实在想不出来时间又紧迫的，要智取：“无病呻吟”法、”翻来覆去“法等等(多发感慨、换个语句说法来阐述同个意思);

时间非常紧迫，无计可施也只能采取下策争取：”铺天盖地法“(多用字符，数行一段)。

在考研英语的小作文部分，历年考试大纲中都会列出多种应用文类型，投诉信、建议信、申请信、求职信、辞职信、求助信、感谢信、号召信、邀请信、道歉信等等，但是考生们回到具体的实践写作中，翻阅近几年考研英语真题试卷，常常发现这些归为一大类，终究是书信形式。既然书信写作如此重要，下面就为各位考生带来书信写作的攻克大招，让写作变得无比简单。

一、书信写作总体概述

1.首段

1)问候收信人

例：Dear Sir/Madam

2)解释来信原因

例：I’m writing for ……

2.中间段落

1)阅读题干要求，从中寻找名词或动词

例：Write a letter of application according to the following situation. You saw an advertisement in this morning’s newspaper .A company need’s a secretary and you are interested. Write an application letter to that company.

2)注意题目文字暗示，把名词具体化，把动词近义词化。

例：I am pleased to discover from Beijing Youth that your company is calling for a secretary……

3.结尾段落

例：I would appreciate your assistance in this matter. If you have any question , please don’t hesitate to contact me. I can be reached at...Look forward to your reply.

4.署名

在文章右下角署名，一般格式为：Yours sincerely……

二、书信写作分类讲解(写作脉络)

1.投诉信

投诉信通常包括：说明投诉原因并表示遗憾，实事求是阐述问题发生的经过，指出问题引起的后果，提出批评及处理意见，督促对方采取措施，提出所希望的赔偿及补救方式。

2.建议信

建议信即写给某个组织或机构，就改进其服务质量提出建议忠告;或写给个人，就某一重大事件提出自己的看法、建议及观点。

3.道歉信

投诉信通常包括：表示歉意、阐明表示歉意的具体原因，提出补救办法，再次表示致歉，并希望得到谅解，提供合适的补救办法。(要注意语言的诚挚)

4.感谢信

感谢信中通常带有浓厚的感情色彩，是所有书信中最带有“人情味”的，该书信内容通常包括：表达感谢之情并说明原因--提及自己曾受到对方的帮助--再次感谢并表达回报愿望。

在2018考研的战场上，一分意味着上线与下线，一分意味着录取与非录取，所以，拼尽全力才有可能取得最终的胜利。预祝大家金榜题名，取得理想佳绩!

[考研英语书信写作方法

谈及写作训练,学生认为就是勤练笔,其实不然。英语的听、说、读、写四种能力是密切相关、相互渗透的。听和读是领会理解别人表达的思想,说和写是用言语表达思想。写的能力要在听、说、读的基础上进行培养和提高,而写的训练又能进一步提高听、说、读的能力。因此,写作训练应该贯穿于英语教学的全过程,才能真正提高学生的写作能力。

一、多读

“读是写的前提,写是读的升华”。一般而言,听和读的量必须数十倍地多于说和写的量,才能较自如地在口头上或书面上表达自己的思想。一方面,大量阅读可以提高阅读能力,扩大词汇量,另一方面,它还可以增强英语语感,对英语写作起着潜移默化的作用。只有当阅读量达到一定程度时,才能找到写好文章的语感。我们可以选择适合学生的读物,如英文报纸(《英语周报》、《21世纪报》)、杂志(《中学生英语园地》)、科普文章、书虫等(水平较高的学生可读小说原著)。大量阅读是学生接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增强记忆力的一种有效途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种有效方法,非常有利于写作。实践证明,学生平时课外阅读面越广,阅读量越大,运用英语表达的能力就越强。

二、多背

英语和汉语存在很大差异,语法规则和句子结构是不同的,很多学生在写作过程中难免会受到母语的影响,出现一些Chinglish(中式英语),而且有些语法规则也把握不准,谓语动词常出现“be+do”的错误形式或缺少谓语的现象。所以,背诵模仿是行之有效的手段之一。

(一)背课文

在多年的教学实践中,我坚持让学生背诵部分课文,较长的文章选背一两段,下节课抽查背诵,或进行默写。《新概念英语2》中很多英语短文通俗有趣,我给学生挑选其中一部分让他们背诵、默写,对培养学生的语感很有效。

(二)背范文

英语写作一般包括记叙文、说明文、议论文、应用文及开放性作文写作。我经过筛选,找出每种文体各五篇文章,同时,我也注重搜集一些好的范文和习作要求学生背诵。通过熟背精彩段落,使学生逐步掌握英语基本的表达方法,有助于模仿。而且,通过这些范文,学生可熟练掌握各种体裁的写作技巧,这是学生写好作文的一条捷径。经过一段时间的训练,学生就会有内容可写、写得出来。

三、多写

除了以上对学生进行读、背训练,还要对学生进行动手训练。学生只有通过写才能知道自己的不足与缺陷,毕竟说和写是两回事。

(一)改写课文

教师可要求学生把Reading缩写成一篇一百字左右的短文,也可让学生把对话改写成记叙文(如项链),这也是进一步理解课文的手段。一般在学完一个单元,学生熟练掌握课文之后,再做这一步,让学生尽量使用本单元的短语句型,同时,也要学着套用背诵的句子。

(二)写英语周记

让学生写英语周记,这是很多老师训练学生写作的方法。有些英语写作不好的学生,往往不坚持写或应付了事。对这样的学生,教师要严格要求,督促检查。对学生的每篇周记,教师都要认真批改。周记不必拘泥于形式,学生可以自由发挥。开始可以写简单的几句话,要求学生多用学过的词组、句型,多套用和模仿。逐渐地,学生会写多些,也会越写越流利,错误也会越来越少。

(三)每周练习写一篇作文

教师挑选一至两篇习作打在投影仪上,师生共同修改,然后让学生将改写过的文章抄写在作文积累本上。这样日积月累,学生考前只要翻翻自己的“作文本”,即可胸有成竹,这个习惯一定要养成,对学生会有很大帮助。

(四)限时写作训练

近年高考试题包容量大,知识覆盖面广,这就要求学生在做题时必须注意速度和节奏,而高考书面表达从时间分配上看,最多也只能是30分钟左右的时间,学生必须在有限时间内完成作文,并且要意思连贯,无严重语法错误。为达到这一要求,每届学生从高一开始,就应定期做限时写作训练。

四、多积累

(一)积累词汇

词汇是说话写作的必需材料,掌握词汇量的多少,是衡量一个学生英语水平高低的“标尺”。《教学大纲》规定的词汇是最基本的词汇,必须熟记。我在多年的教学中,每堂课都坚持让学生默写或听写单词,要求学生根据中文意思,写出单词的拼写形式、词类和词形变化。这就使学生积累了大量的词汇,为高考书面表达打下坚实的拼写基础,避免了因单词拼写错误而丢分。

(二)积累句型

我在平时授课过程中,让学生把重点句型记录在作文积累本上,随时翻看和背诵。如写观点类文章常用的Some share the view that...,Others hold the opposite opinion that...,The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages,As far as I’m concerned,以及常用到的定语从句、倒装句、非限、非谓、同位语、强调句型等。

(三)积累文章

学生背过的篇章、写过的作文,尤其是各种体裁的范文习作,要分类整理粘贴在作文积累本上,经常拿出来朗读背诵。我教过的学生,都积累了大量的范文习作,考试时可做到有备无患。

通过长期的写作训练,我狠抓学生基本功,学生的写作水平明显提高。我所教班级在每次考试中书面表达平均分都在同类班级之上。总之,英语写作训练是综合能力训练之一,写作能力的提高需要通过循序渐进的训练才能达到。听、说、读、写几方面的训练是相辅相成的,它们互相促进、互相制约,在平时教学中教师要合理安排,有机穿插,这样才能让学生“下笔如有神”。

解决方法题型

要求考生列举出解决问题的多种途径

1.问题现状

2.怎样解决（解决方案的优缺点）

In recent days，we have to face I problem——A，which is becoming more and more serious. First，——（说明A的现状）。Second，——（举例进一步说明现状）

Confronted with A，we should take a series of effective measures to cope with the situation. For one thing，——（解决方法一）。 For another ——（解决方法二）。 Finally， ——（解决方法三）。

Personally， I believe that ——（我的解决方法）。 Consequently， I‘m confident that a bright future is awaiting us because ——（带来的好处）。

1. To cherish the enviroment is to love ourselves.

爱护环境就是爱护我们自己。

2.Water is the source of ourlives

水是生命之源。

3.I make an urgent appeal that measures should be taken to cope with the situation

我急切呼吁应该采取措施改变现状。

4.Our government is doing its best to take measures to fight against pollution.

我们政府正努力制定措施与污染作斗争。

5.We are sure that well win the battle.

我们坚信我们能赢得战斗。

6.Its high time that we should protect our enviroment from being polluted.

是时候我们应该防止环境污染了。

7. Keep our mountains green，the wate clean，and the sky blue.

使我们山更绿，水更清，天更蓝。

8.However，natural resources are not inexhaustible.some reserves are already on the brink of exhaustion.

然而自然资源并不是无穷无尽的，一些储量已经到了穷尽的边缘。

9.If we do something with no thought for the furture . The later generation would be in danger.

如果我们不为将来考虑，后代就会受到威胁。

10.Our earths days are numbered without urgent help.

没有及时的帮助我们的地球就屈指可数了。

11(Sth.)are bound to generate severe consequences if we keep turning a blink eye to them.

如果我们继续睁一只眼闭一只眼的话，……一定会有恶劣的后果。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

1、紧贴学生生活生活中处处有作文。引导学生在参与生活中学作文，在审视自已的生活中写作文，在品味自己的生活感悟中写作文，符合现代教育观，符合学生习作的心理，有利于学生创新能力的培养。我注重丰富学生的校园生活，开放图书室，让学生自由地大量读写。在班里办手抄小报，语文课向课外延伸。多彩的校园生活，提供了丰富的写作养料。我还注意营造学生参与社会活动的良好环境，引导学生参加各种社会实践活动，在各种活动中自主地搜集素材，记录体验，写感想、心得。学生作文一律从学生经历的活动中感受最深的事件中选题，这样，儿童由“无话”到“有话”，由“怕写到“乐写”,由“瞎编乱造”到“真情涌现”。

2、引导儿童交际小学作文教学是言语交际中最基本的表达训练，从社会言语交际的实际需要出发，为社会言语交际的实际需要服务是作文教学的指导思想。要让学生明白：写文章就是向人家介绍一件事情或一位人物，表达自己一定的情感。要强化学生的“作者”意识，在写前要站在作者的立场上思考：我的文章写给谁看？怎样写才能把事物说明白，进而能打动人，使读者身临其境。站在这样的预防交际的角度上构思写作，文章便容易倾注作者的情感。写完后我让儿童把习作读给别人听，或征求别人意见，或与听者一道分享美词佳句的快乐。让同学们修改自己的习作，也倾听别人的习作，对同学的习作进行评价，提出修改意见。每一次写作的过程都是一次语言交际的过程，使学生感到写作文不仅是提高自己运用语言能力的需要，也是社会生活、人际交往的需要，从而乐写不疲。

3、开放写作时空这样的作文教学大纲司空见惯：老师命题《我的++》，学生“遵命服从”，全班学生搜肠刮肚，胡编乱写，凭空塑造一位“伟大的母亲”、“可敬的老师”。学生心里明白老师要求的是文章技巧如何，并不管你是否真有其人，确有其事；老师要求的是你快速作文、当堂完成，以训练写作上的应试能力。这种指导思想，这种写作的时空条件，不管学生有无经历、体验、积累，只要编得圆满即可。如何让学生写出真情实感呢?据报载：一位美国教师让学生写《我的爸爸》，给学生两周的时间，让学生去采访父母、亲戚、邻居，观察爸爸上班的情形，以深刻地了解自己的爸爸。这样，为自己的写作积累了大量的素材，自然有话可说，自然情深意切。我们不妨开放学生的写作时空，让学生在自由的时空里捕捉作文的生命活力。

4、鼓励文体各异当今，普高语文教材及成人复习教材的目录中，都悄悄地将“记叙文”、“议论文”、“说明文”等所谓的文体取消了。“淡化文体”正成为语文界的热门话题。成人如此，何况初学习作的小学生?文章本无体，古人作文是不讲文体的：如王安石的《游褒禅山记》、苏东坡的《石钟山记》都属“文体难辨”的文章。文是用来抒发心曲的，本应是满腔热情、满腔思想的自然流淌和外泄。作文指导，无疑要指导学生说真话、说实话，说自己想说的话。记叙文在小学生习作中占重要地位，如教师一味地指导学生围绕这个圈子转，势必会阻碍他们思维的发展，思路的拓宽。以至于一抬笔，文体的约束就占据了大脑，唯恐不合规范。这样写哪有激情和灵感。小学生要表达的东西也有深沉的、羞涩的、神秘的，他们有自己的听众，自己的读者，要用适合自己的方式表达心声。如写一个人物，书信体、日记体、议论说明体皆可用之，甚至比起记叙文抒发起感情来有过之而无不及。每个学生都有自己的个性，自己的思想，教学作文，文体无需千篇一律，而要因人而异，因文而异。

5、放手自拟文题统一规定文题同样不利于学生思维的开拓，更使部分学生易犯“无病呻吟”的坏毛病。在此方面也应为学生营造相应宽松的空间。“开放式”文题。即在主题确定以后，完全放手让学生自拟题目，减少文题对学生思想的束缚。如写一位老师，以《我的老师》为题，可能多数学生会写现在的尤其是语文老师，无疑内容的来源的文章的思路都是很窄的；若放手让学生自拟，那么诸如《我最喜欢的一位老师》、《我最难忘的一位老师》、《我的启蒙老师》，《我心目中的好老师》……将如雨后春笋般涌现。文题丰富了，内容自然不会枯燥管，形式自然不会单一，感情也自然真挚感人。“补充式”文题。即提供文题的形式，让生自补文题内容。如《我最难忘的……》，同学们有了自己的生活阅历，总有自己最难忘的东西。这此东西可能是人、事或物。于是，诸如《我最难忘的一个人》、《我最难忘的一件事》、《我最难忘的一次旅行》等都可能出现。让他们自己填补文题空白，选择自己想写的内容，从而有效地避免了学生说空话、说假话，语言雷同，形式单一的弊端。

6、改革评价机制传统的作文评价总是教师一人专制，一语定千金定优劣，极少给予学生参与评价的机会。这样，学生总处于被动接受的地位，无法主动客观地发现自己的优点和不足。作文评价，除教师评价外，应留给学生一定的自我评价的空间。学生参评。可将某个学生的习作作为范文请小读者在课堂上朗读，指导全班学生各抒已见，直抒胸臆，谈谈自己的观点和看法。意见虽多，甚至有时会针锋相对，这对于小作者、小读者双方都是受益无穷的。指导自评。教师可适当地写些启发性、思考性的评语，做些批注，然后指导小学生多读、多看、多思，根据教师的评价总结一下写得精彩的地方好在哪里，不足之处原因何在。将师评与自评有机地结合起来，使学生更加客观地认识自己作文的价值和水平。少批评多激励。对于小学生作文无需过多地指出缺点和不足，甚至针对细微之处吹毛求疵，从而打击学生自信心。教师应更多地针对其优点，给予表扬的鼓励，使其相信自己的能力和水平，相信自己倍受老师欣赏，在心里得到满足的同时也大大提高习作的水平的质量。总之，作文教学应为学生提供宽松的环境，留给学生充分施展自己的空间，使其能够真正地展现和发展自己，这便达到了作文教学的真正目的。

职称论文一般是发表小论文，2000-3000字即可，有些内容特别饱满完整的写7-8000字符也可以的，只是字数越多，安排的版面越多，费用也就会增加的。很多普刊是比较容易发的，论文有这几部分即可，标题，摘要，关键词，正文，参考文献。然后文章抄袭率控制在20%以下即可，内容结构完整，基本上可以发表出来了。下面是小编整理的职称论文写作方法，以供大家学习参考

一、好论文的感觉

1、 您的论文可以用一句话来表达，这一句话可以长一点，但是表达很清楚;我们可以把这话叫做中心句。

2、 论文的框架(纲要)可以很快地表达出来，框架就是中心句的展开;

3、 论文的框架可以简明扼要地画出框图，看起来逻辑清楚，在一个表达的系统中;

4、 根据论文的框架(纲要);可以展开成整篇文章;

5、 好象你在画画，一开始就考虑好整篇文章的意旨、布局、重点、点睛处，这样争取一次性就把文章写好;

6、 写的文章是有价值的，能给读者带来受用;文章写起来感觉是在介绍经验;一边写文章一边有自豪感;

7、 科技技术类的选题有特别的角度，一般能套在“新、难、重、特”里面;

8、 写之前用至少看过3篇相近选题的文献;最好是5至10篇;

9、 行文格式标准，(只要去看文献就知道自己有哪些差距)。

二、怎么写好论文

1、写论文的准备工作

考虑自己评职称时的方向;

自己的工作领域;

可以取材的工程项目、论文相关的案例、工作经验、经历;

初步选几个题目;

根据初选的题目查询文献;

对比看哪个论文方向写起来在价值、表达方便、与自己结合上更合适。

2、确定题目

前面所说的在于选择大的选题方向，到这里的时候，要具体考虑细的题目、重点、聚焦点，题目能不能用一句话表达出来，这时候就要考虑清楚，这一句话可以很长，但是一句话出来的东西一定是逻辑很清晰的。往往的结构是“XX的XX的XX”这样表达的时候，文章的领域、着眼点、新颖点往往就被表达出来了。

3、快速撰写论文

因为能够用一句话一表达题目或者中心，所以写论文的时候就会比较快。

快速的写法是：

先根据那一句话，展开纲要，大概是二级目录就差不多了，就是1.1这样的级别;

之后，根据二级目录，可以很快地组织内容。

4、要点突出

这个时候再来比较内容与题目是对应性怎么样?是一致吗?要对题目做出轻微的调整，还是对内容做出轻微的调整?

哪一个部分是重点，哪个部分是重点的重点?文章的篇幅够了没有，是太多了，还是太少了?要不要修，修哪里?

这里的原则就是突出要点，如同画家画树，冬天时，有枝干而无叶，仍然是树，反过来就不行的。

5、整理

根据突出重点的原则，在保证主干清楚的情况下，进行增减。

根据国际单位制，对单位进行修改;

根据行文格式，对字体、大小、图片、参考文献等进行修改;

对摘要和关键词进行设定。

6、润色

对文章的创新点、系统性表述、逻辑清晰、文章的实用价值、可信度再行润色;

对语句的流利进行润色，最简单的办法，就是从头到尾出声地读一遍下来，边读边改，一定会好很多。

三、重点强调

1、选题

至关重要。

职称论文是要评职称用的，要和自己的所学专业、所从事工作有相关性，特别是与你所将要评的职称专业有较大的相关性。这点对于学历专业、工作经历多、跨专业评职称的人要特别注意。

2、表达系统性和逻辑性

系统性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，你要把它说清楚，说全面。比如，你跟人家介绍自家的房子，你就要把厅、主卧、客户、书房、饭厅、、卫生间、阳台都说到，这样就叫系统。如果觉得内容太大，就光说客厅，那就要把客厅的四面、上下、中间都有什么说清楚;如果还嫌太大，光说吊顶，就把凡是光于吊项的风格、材料、做工、等等全部说清楚。这就叫做系统性。系统性的反面就是缺漏。

逻辑性的表达。就是说一个东西的时候，要先主后次，先上后下，等等，有一个符合那个东西的规律的表达。比如说家庭的成员，从老的到少的，从男的到女的，从直系的说到旁系的，一代说完再说一代，必要时配要图表来辅助，这就是逻辑性的表达。逻辑性的反面就是乱。

3、规范性

论文只是一种体裁，一种风格，一种方式，有着它区别于其它体裁的规定套路，这就是规范性。比如：摘要要怎么写、关键词要怎么设，参考文献是怎么来表达，标点、格式、单位等要怎么做，这是规范性。

雅思大作文的写作都是议论文题材的，对写作方法和技巧方面还是有很多要求的。下面雅思就为大家整理了一个雅思大作文的写作方法，是关于根据原因和结果进行推理来写作的。大家可以在备考的时候，进行适当的参考。

雅思大作文的写作，最关键之处在于论述得当。支持句应使主题句更加令人信服，令考生的想法更加鲜明的呈现在考官面前。然而，中国考生在论述时往往存在一些误区：

一味重复主题，空洞解释。

此类段落不论字数多少，都给人空虚的感觉。考生往往为了凑足篇幅而不择手段。表面看来扩展了许多，但仔细体会永远只有一个意思。不得不让考官觉得即单调又啰嗦。

论述浮于表面，不达根源。

这类考生往往缺乏刨根究底的精神，总是在主旨周围绕圈子，不达中心。这也是中国考生的通病，看似八九不离十，却总也不愿把话点破，让考官怎能不又急又气。

在所有的扩展方式之中，因果推理法是最受用也是最透彻的方法。凡事先追溯到其原由，再扩展其结果，这是将主题阐述清晰、论述有力并且具有逻辑感的最佳手段。

例如在出国留学利弊这一题目之前，若考生单纯说有可能会使青少年学坏，难免缺乏说服力，但若紧接着扩展因为孩子高中毕业后思想上还不成熟，若认识不好的朋友会难以抵抗社会上不好的诱惑，那么此论点一定会让考官眉头舒展，点头认同。由此可见，善用此推理法会让议论文如虎添翼，事半功倍。

所谓“找原话”，就是要找到语文阅读理解上要求的关键字、词或句子所在段落，要求学生在阅读文字材料时有重点地圈下来，然后再来重点理解与分析。当然找原话的目的是为了弄清题意，确定解决问题的阅读空间和范围。

在通读全文的基础上，将要回答的问题放到阅读试卷上的文字材料中来，再去浏览所要回答的试题，经过初步的思考，确定解决问题的阅读空间。对短文进行理解，然后分析句子结构，确定该词的词性和在句子中的成分。同时利用句子提供的信息，这样我们可以从文章中或文字材料中直接的提取有效信息。有些试题它要求用文中原话来回答，我们就可以用文中的原话来作答，这时就可以“从文章中直接提取信息”来回答问题。

如果它没有明确要求用文中的原话来作答，我们也可以“从文章中直接提取信息”来回答问题。如若它指定必需要使用学生自己的话来回答的话，我们也可以让学生将文中的原话加以翻译，再换言之。力求挖掘原句子的隐含信息和深层含义。有些试题则需要结合全文内容，挖掘句子的隐含信息，经过缜密的思考，寻求完美的答案。

第一步：“装”。我这里所说的“装”，也可以理解为“装傻”，指的是我们明明知道某一样事物的存在，但在写作时却要表现出完成不知道或者是没有发现的样子。以《美，就在身边》或者《原来，这也是一种美》为例，我们身边的一处美景、一件好事、一个心灵美的人物等凡是可以挖掘出“美”的特点的都可以成为我们写作的对象。但在确定好写作对象之后，我们先不要急着去阐述这一种“美”，而是有意地采用对比或者欲扬先抑的表现手法，反映出我们认为它不美或者根本就没有觉察到这一种美的存在，甚至还可以表现出自己对身边的美视而不见，反而苦苦地去追寻所谓的“美”。

第二步：“转”。我这里所说的“转”，包含两个方面：一是在行文结构上的过渡，也就是承上启下;二是因为某一件事情的发生促使我在认识或是思想上有了根本性的转变。也就是要告诉读者：前面所写的是我对某一样事物最初的认识或是它给我留下的坏印象，而这些都因为接下来发生的这件事情使我在认识或是思想上发生了重要的转变。这一步是文章的重点，除了要处理好过渡句或是过渡段之外，重中之重还是要写好这一件令我发生转变的非比寻常的事情，因此最好能够在这一件事情上交待清楚记叙文的六要素。

第三步：“醒”。我这里所说的“醒”，指的是在经历了第二步所写的某件事情之后，在认识上的颠覆或者是思想上的醒悟，或者说是由此开始“卖乖”。具体说来，就是要交待清楚自己对第一步所提到事物(写作对象)有了什么不一样的看法或是新的认识?获得了什么样的启示?明白了什么样的道理或是思想上有了什么样的转变?从“卖乖”的角度来说，就是要告诉读者你从此变得懂事了、变好了、积极向上了，目光不会再像以前一样短浅、人也不会再像以前一样不懂事了。

there are lots of different methods to help us study English well. i will tell some of them. and im willing to accept the words from you. first, one should have enough word vocabulary. how to reach this goal? to listen to it much more, to write them down time by time, to read them as frequently as possible? no! there are something even more wonderful! to sing the words with the music you are familiar with. the result is out of your imagination. second, one should watch videos as many as he can. on the videos, people can get a lot. how to speak the words, how to pronounce them, how to handle it with the grammar and so on. thats just two of my ways. do you agree with me? would you like to share yours with me?

有很多种不同的方式方法可以帮助我们把英语学好.我将说它们中的几种.当然,我也会很荣幸的接受来自您的品评.首先,一个人（要学习好英语）应该有足够的词汇量.如何达成这个目标呢?尽可能的多听,尽可能的一次又一次的抄写,尽可能的频繁的重复的朗读（同一篇文章）?不!有更棒的学习方式.跟着您熟悉的音乐旋律,去唱那些您要背诵的单词.效果,不可思议.其次,一个人应尽可能多的观看视频.视频里,人们能学会很多.看（外国人）如何去使用单词,如何在日常生活中发音,如何展现语法的结构和等等.这是我的所有学习法则里面的2个.你,同意我的做法吗?你,愿意与我分享一些你的学习法则吗?

一、认真审题，切中题意

《中考考试说明》指出，书面表达要切中题意。看到考题后，先不要急于动笔，要仔细看清题目要求的内容，在自己的头脑中构思出一个框架或画面，确定短文的中心思想，不要匆匆下笔，看懂题意，审清格式、体裁、人物关系、故事情节、主体时态、活动时间、地点等。

二、围绕中心，拟定提纲

书面表达评分原则有四条：(1)内容要点;

(2)运用词汇和结构的数量;

(3)运用语法结构和词汇的准确性;(4)上下文的连贯性。

由此可见，要点是给分的一个重要因素。为了防止写作过程中遗漏要点，同学们要充分发挥自己的观察力，把情景中给出的各个要点逐条列出。注意短文字数不要低于或超过规定的字数太多。

三、语言通顺，表达准确

(1)避免使用汉语式英语，尽量使用

自己熟悉的句型。几种句型可交替使用，以避免重复和呆板。

(2)多用简单句型，记事、写人一般都不需要复杂的句型。可适当地使用陈述句、一般疑问句、祈使句和感叹句。不用或少用非谓语或情态动词等较复杂的句型。

(3)注意语法、句法知识的灵活运用。(4)描写人物时，要生动具体，例如：①外表特征：tall，short，fat，thin，strong，weak，ordinary-looking等;②内心境界：

glad，happy，sad，excited，anxious，interested等;③感情描写：love，like，hate，feel，laugh，cry，smile，shout等;④动作描写：come，go，get，have，take，bring，fetch等。

(5)上下文要连贯。上下文的连贯性也是评分的一条原则，同学们应注意下面过渡的用法：①表示并列关系的过渡词：and，aswellas，or等;②表示转折关系的过渡词：but，yet，however等;③表示时间关系的过渡词：first，andthen，

finally，after，before，atlast，atthattime，later，inthepast，immediately，inthe

meanwhile等;④表示空间关系的过渡词：near(to)，far(from)，inthefrontof，beside等;⑤表示比较关系的过渡词：inthesameway，justlike，justas等;⑥表示对照关系的过渡词：but，still，yet，however，ontheotherhand等;⑦表示递进关系的过渡词：also，and，then，too，inaddition，moreover，again等;⑧表示因果关系的过渡词：because，since，then，thus，otherwise，so，therefore，asaresult等;⑨表示解释说明的过渡词：forexample，infact，inthiscase，for，actually等。

四、不会表达，另辟蹊径

中考作文给分是以要点和语言准确度而定，不以文采打分。造句越简单准确越好，造复合句容易出错，容易被扣分，阅卷场上有句话：“错误面前人人平等，文采好不加分。”如遇到个别要点表达不出来或难以表达，可采用变通的办法，化难为易，化繁为简。总之，所造句子要正确、得体、符合英语表达习惯。

五、锦上添花，量力而行

如果你还有时间和精力，想把书面表达写得更好，那么，请注意以下几点：(1)句型多样化，不要i(we)……到底，使人觉得乏味;(2)适当使用一些并列句或主从复合句;(3)进一步描绘人或事物时，适当使用定语从句;(4)适当使用分词或分词短语，烘托谓语动词;(5)偶尔使用一下倒装句，增加新鲜感;(6)适当调换一下状语在句子中的位置，使句子不雷同;(7)上下句子紧接时，其中完全相同的成分可以省略，以节省篇幅。

六、书写工整，卷面整洁

字迹要清晰，让阅卷人看得清楚，不可字迹潦草，难以辨认，要保持卷面的整洁。

七、检查错误

检查错误应从以下几个方面入手：(1)格式是否有错;(2)拼写有无错误;(3)语言是否用错;(4)时态、语态错误;(5)标点错误;(6)人称是否用错。

总之，只要平时同学们多练习写作并有意运用上述方法和技巧，合理分配时间，在中考时一定能写出高质量的作文，得到令人满意的考分。

说明文用途很广，实用价值很大，写好说明文是很重要的，是现代化生活对每个人提出的要求。掌握说明文自身的规律，才能写好说明文。 下面介绍说明文的写作方法，欢迎阅读了解。

随着科学技术的高速发展，许多新产品也应运而生，相伴随的说明书也与日俱增，所以，好说明文已成为当前急需解决的课题。

任何事情都有其自身的规律，说明文的写作过程也是有规律可循的，因此，作为一个写说明文的作者，只有掌握这一规律，才能写好说明文。

1 明白说明文的六大要素

大家都知道，写记叙文，必须具备记叙文的六个要素，才能写成一篇记叙文，而且说明文和记叙文一样，也必须掌握说明文的要素才能写好，其要素归纳起来也不外乎如下六个方面：

（1）说明对象。

（2）被说明对象的特征。

（3）说明方式。

（4）说明顺序。

（5）说明方法。

（6）被说明对象的性质，性能功用，成因市里及内部关系等。

2 清楚写好一篇说明文需要具备的六个条件

这就是说，要想写好一篇说明文，至少得具备六个条件，那么又如何使用这六个条件呢？

第一，明确说明对象是什么？这要求你清楚地告诉读者，你要说明一个什么事物。

第二，被说明对象有何特征，什么是特征呢？所谓特征就是这一事物区别于其他事物的标志，因为，任何一个事物，都有其自身的特征，只有抓住它的特征，才能从本质上把说明的事物与其他事物区别开来，这样你才能把被说明的对象说清楚，从而达到说明的目的，例如，食物从何处来一文，作者就抓住被说明对象，食物来源的根本特征，植物靠自养，动物和大部分微生物靠益阳，极少部分的细菌靠化学能来合成，从而在本质上说明了食物来源这一深奥的事理。如果作者没有抓住这一特征，恐怕浪费了很多的笔墨也难以说清楚，因此要想写好一篇说明文，掌握被说明对象的特征是极其重要的，但是要准确的有条理地说明事物的特征，首先必须对事物有个清楚的认识，在生活中观察体验，参加实践，深入研究，坚持不懈地记取，是我们认识事物的根本途径，在这方面的例子是不乏其人的，伟大的物候学家，竺可桢，坚持不懈的观察记录，写出了大自然的诺言，周树人认真观察，写出了生动有趣的蜘蛛。因此，观察观察再观察，认识认识再认识，才能认清事物的特征。

第三，根据被说明事物的自身特征确定署名方式，既平实说明，生动说明两种方式，平实说明语言简练准确，通俗易懂，不带有描写的成分，例如，统筹方法，生动说明带有描写的成分，用词准确传神，把抽象的事物形象化，具体化，给人的感觉既生动活泼又形象，有趣味，例如，看云识天气，有时还可以把平实说明，和生动说明二者结合起来，这样会收到相得益彰的效果，例如，周建人写蜘蛛一文，在介绍蜘蛛吐丝的生理，机制时，运用了生物学上的术语，并作了科学的说明，这是平实说明。在介绍蜘蛛在网上，一幕幕紧张激烈捕捉蚊蝇的战斗场景时，作者运用了生动说明，这样语言准确，生动又形象，增强了文章的说明效果，使读者不仅有所知而且有所感，更觉有趣，总之，说明方式，根据说明对象的特征可灵活运用。

第四，确定说明顺序，因为说明对象不同，所以说明顺序也会相应的不同，可归纳为三大类，一是，按时间顺序写，包括程序说明，例如，从甲骨文到口袋图书馆。二是，按空间顺序写，空间顺序又分为从上到下，由内到外，从左到右或从右到左，从中间到两边，从前到后货，按从东西南北方位写。例如故宫博物院，人民大会堂。三是按逻辑顺序写，所谓逻辑顺序，就是按照事物的关系安排先后次序，例如海光。

总之，说明顺序只有安排合理，才能使文章条理分明，能给人一个说清楚完整的印象。

第五，恰当地运用说明方法，常用的说明方法有，下定义，分类别，举例子，作比较，打比喻列数字，配备图表等。至于用什么方法来说明事物，这是动笔之前必须考虑的。没有恰到好处的说明方法，也达不到说明的目的，究竟用哪种或哪几种说明方法？要由被说明对象的特征来决定，例如，食物从何处来一文，作者将生物获得食物的途径，作为分类的标准，分为自养和异养两大类，接着，又以获得食物的方法为标准来进一步，说明，自养型，认为靠光合作用的，和不靠光合作用的两类，易养型的分为不能加工改造植物的，动物和能加工改造的人类两类，这样层层分类说明不仅符合科学原理，而且条理分明，作者在分类说明的同时，行，文中还运用了打比喻，举例子下定义列数字的说明方法，这种恰当的综合运用，大大的增强了说明的效果，总而言之，说明方法，不能一概而论，而要根据被说明事物的特征，从实际的需要出发，去恰当地运用。

第六，根据说明的对象不同，可分为十五说明，事理说明，程序说明三大类，实物说明要根据说明的对象的特征，侧重说明事物的性质，类别，状态性能，功用、成因等。事理说明要说明有关事物的内部关系，程序说明要写清楚操作步骤的先后顺序。

3 合理安排命题和安排说明文的结构

命题方式，题目一般是直接揭示要说明的对象，这是说明文最常用的命题方法，例如，机器人，统筹方法等。有了题目，又具备了材料，还要有完整的结构形式。

说明文常用的结构形式有四种：

（1）并列式，各层次间的关系是平等并列的，例如，《南州6月荔枝丹》。

（2）递进式，后面的说明是在前边说明的基础上做进一步的说明，各层次之间的关系由浅入深，例如《向沙漠进军》，作者竺可桢先说明沙漠对人类的危害，接着说明人类征服沙漠的方法，最后指出在社会主义制度下，人类征服沙漠的美好前景。

（3）总分式，先总体来说，后面几层再分开说，或者前几层先分开说，然后再总起来说，例如，巍巍中山陵，作者对陵园建筑，按空间顺序，由总到分来说明。

（4）连贯式，各层次之间按照事物的发展过程或按因果条件等关系，安排层次，前后互相承接，例如，景泰蓝制作，当然这几种结构形式有时单独运用，有时综合运用，大城市之间按照一种结构形式安排每层，中小城市可采取另一种结构形式，总之要灵活运用，达到结构严谨完整的目的。

说明文用途十分广泛，对工业农业科技，商业和人们的日常生活都有很大的实用价值，人们利用他来为自己服务，指导着日常的工作学习和生活，因此，写好说明文是很重要的，是现代化生活对每个人提出的要求。

要写出一篇好文章，必须具备多方面的因素，以下是小编整理的关于小学作文的写作技巧，欢迎阅读参考。

一、提高认识事物和表达事物的能力。

我国著名教育家叶圣陶先生指出：写任何东西决 定于认识和经验，有什么样的认识和经验，才能写出什么样的东西来。反之，没有表达认识的能力，同样也写不出好作文。

二、把认识结构作为作文的核心。

包括学习知识，观察积累，记忆储存，训练思维，丰富 想象，培养情感，锻炼意志；从说到写，推敲修改，多读勤写。

三、树立大作文观，听、说、读、写有机结合。

一要注重审题；二要明确写作目的，立意要新；三是选材要有根据；四要讲究谋篇技巧，安排好篇章结构；五要注意文章分段，事先列小标题，作文提纲；六要注重文章写法，因文用法；七要妙用语言，用思想调遣语言。

学会五种立意法：以事赞人，直抒胸臆，借物喻理，触景生情，托物言志。

四、作文大目标的逐年级分解。

一年级字词，二年级句子，三年级片断，四年级篇章，五年级综合，六年级提高。

五、实施五项训练。

根据认识是作文的核心这一原则，围绕这个发展学生心理机制的核心，扎扎实实地进行了五项训练：

（一）字词训练。

学习掌握大量字词。掌握运用字词的金钥匙：联系自己熟悉的事物； 联系自己生活实际；联系自己学会的语言及字词知识。

运用十引说的方法，把字词学习与说话训练相结合。十引说是：1、分析字形； 2、利用教具；3、凭图学词；4、组词扩词；5、选词填空；6、词语搭配；7、调整词序； 8、触景用词；9、词语分类；10、联词成句。

丰富了说话训练内容，使自己积累大量会说会用的字词，为写作文打下坚实基础。

（二）句子训练。

只要是一个句子，都包括两个方面：一是说的人、事、物、景， 二是说目的。

可有些教师指导学生说一句话时，没有很好凭借图画和事物，认真教学生观察、认识、分析、表达的方法，只是拿出一张图或一事物让学生说写一句话，学生不知道为什么要说写一句话，怎样说写一句话，说写一句什么句型、什么句式的话， 导致作文中语调单一、呆板、不活泼生动。

可以改让学生凭图、看物、对话、练习说 写一句时间、地点、人物、事件四要素完整的话，四种句型，九种句式的话。学生 才会在作文中运用不同句型、句式，表达不同的思想、感情、态度、目的。

（三）段的训练。

结合八种段式：以事物发展为序段，时间先后为序段，空间变换为序段，总述、分述结构段，因果段、转折段，递进段，并列段。

以此认识客观事物的发生、发展规律。不论哪种段式，都是记叙事物的发展和人们对事物的认识，即段的内容，段的中心。

它和一句话一样，也是对人、事、物、景的叙述，也是表达一 个意思。只不过是把一句话进一步说得更清楚、更深刻。

（四）篇章训练。

篇是由段组成的。通过对审题、立意、选材、谋篇、定法、用 语的知识与方法，通过记叙、描写、抒情、议论四种表达方法，文章开头与结尾、过渡 与呼应方法，各种文章体裁的知识与方法。学会写中心明确，意思完整，详略得当的记 叙文和应用文。

（五）生活现场训练。

采用生活现场训练，更好地体会从内容入手写作文。 通过各种作文教学活动，如确定中心讨论会、选材讨论会、作文会诊会、 小诸葛审题会、妙用词语比赛会，从活动中生动具体地学到作文知识与写作文 的方法。

另外，还可开展各种校内外活动，如跳绳、拔河、踢毽、球类、背书比赛，从而学会如何写比赛作文；开展校内外义务劳动，学会如何写劳动场面；举行诗歌朗诵、 讲演会，学会如何写会议场面及会议上的见闻；通过参观访问，浏览名胜古迹，学会如 何写参观访问记、游记。学习观察方法，留心周围的事物、事件，处处留心皆学问， 人情练达即文章。

通过现场生活作文，进一步认识到：生活是作文的沃土。从而学会 写真事、抒真情，陶冶真、善、美的情操，培养良好的文风。 实行互评互改，培养学生思维独立性和创造性。

学生作文写好后，组织在小组内讲评。先学习别人作文的优点，再用批评的眼光互相指出作文中的缺点，并指出改进意见。在此基础上重新再写，从而使学生每写一篇都有收获。

创新思维，是创造活动的核心。 新课程改革着眼于促进学生的发展，尤其是创新能力的发展，而创新能力的核心和基础是创新思维。指导写作是培养学生创新思维的有效途径之一，那么在语文教学中如何培养小学生写作的创新思维，提高学生的创新能力，结合我的语文课堂教学，谈以下几点做法：

一、 拓展描述，创造出新形象，培养创新思维的形象性

我们的大脑对已有表象进行加工而产生前所未有的新形象的思维特性，称为创新思维的形象性。通过想象、联想进行扩展性描述，使文中单调干瘪的形象变得鲜活有生气。

1、改编诗词，创造新形象

小学语文教材中诗词体裁的课文为培养学生创新思维形象性，开辟了广阔的空间。诗词体裁的课文有其特殊的特点：语言的高度凝练性，结构上的跳跃性，艺术形象的富于想象性。教学此类体裁的课文时，让学生将其改写成记叙文的形式，在了解诗词大意的基础上，结合课文插图和生活经验，展开充分合理的想象和联想，加工、改造、创造艺术新形象，使形象丰富、生动、鲜活;补充、完善诗词中空缺的结构，使情节连贯、有序、具体。而这一系列的思维训练无不浸透着学生的创作个性。

如改写《冬夜读书示子聿》，学生补叙了父子间亲切的对话，展现了父亲的谆谆教诲和儿子的悉心聆听，充满父子情深;改写《西江月 夜行黄沙道中》，学生细致描述了黄沙岭夏夜天气的微妙变化。其中有的联想到月亮姐姐吵醒了沉睡的鹊儿的美梦，要和它说悄悄话;青蛙在举行盛大的联欢会，庆祝丰收的好年景;星星也为这迷人的夜景而感动的落泪……一个个新鲜奇妙的形象孕育而生，学生微妙神奇的想象力在这里得到了尽情的展现 。

2、补充情节内容，创造新形象

将课文中简略或一笔带过的情节描写，发挥想象联想，增加内容，扩充成形象逼真、内容具体的新形象。如教学《游天然动物园》，我安排了情节扩充训练，将阿里三言两语介绍的动物趣闻，描写成详细具体有趣的动物活动，在描述动物活动的情节中，学生把狮子攻击犀牛

的凶残以及被野狗追赶的狼狈栩栩如生地展现出来。又如教学《友谊的航程》，我让学生结合插图，通过想象描写人们奔走相告，争睹中***舰风采时的场面，学生们用生动的语言展现出了不同人物的动作、神情、心境，感受了人们喜悦的激情。通过扩充情节，一个个生动鲜明的崭新形象跃然纸上。

二、 学习写法，灵活迁移运用，培养学生创新思维的灵活性

能迅速而轻易地从一类对象转向另一类对象的思维特性，称为创造思维的灵活性。语文课本的每一篇文章都是经过精心挑选的名篇佳作，都蕴含着可供借鉴学习的写作技法，教师要善于挖掘课文中典型的写作技法，指导学生学习，积极灵活的运用于写作，训练学生思维的灵活性。

1、学习写作的语言艺术

语言是文学的第一要素，正确精当地运用语言，准确具体地传达出事物的个性特征，创造出典型的艺术境界，作品才能给人以美的享受。学文中通过替换、比较、选择，让学生揣摩用词的准确美;抓住优美语句品读，让学生感受语言的声响美，描绘的意境美，抒发的情感美，在熏陶感染中鼓励学生积累(赏读、背诵、摘抄)、恰当地运用于写作。如教学《望月》开头一段的月色描写时，，让学生在反复吟诵中体会用词的优美，感受月色的朦胧美。在训练环节上我安排了仿写训练，让学生仿写一段景色，恰当地选用优美词句，用上比喻或拟人的修辞语句，这样写出的文章才生动有灵气。

2、学习不同文学样式的写作手法

语文课文中安排了各种类型的文学样式。在教学中我们应当指导学生学习此类作品的写法，巧妙灵活地运用于写作，切实做到学以致用。如教学《学会合作》这篇演讲稿时，我指导学生学习演讲稿的写法：以强有力的证据，分条屡析地阐明自己鲜明的观点。为了激发学生的写作热情，我精心组织了一场别开生面的演讲比赛。在撰写演讲稿时，学生们写出了诸如《学会运动》、《树立自信》、《做时间的主人》等演讲稿。教学《埃及的金字塔》、《夹竹桃》等说明性的课文时，指导学生学习通过

细致观察，写出事物鲜明特点来的写作手法;教学《鼎湖山听泉》，指导学生学习按顺序写游记的方法……为此我组织学生进行了游览、观赏等活动并指导学生写作训练。

当然还可以指导学生从课文中学到其他的写作手法：内容的详略得当、结构的总分式、典型环境中的心理刻画等，教师要细心挖掘，携取一点，以点带面，迁移运用，训练学生思维的灵活性。

三、 寻找思维的发散点，变通思考，培养学生创新思维的发散性

依据一定的知识和事实求得某一问题的多种可能答案的思维特性，称为创新思维的发散性。这是一种沿着不同方向、向着不同范围、不因循传统和常规的自由发散的思维方式，是从已知信息中衍生出大量变化的、独特而新颖的新信息的思维。语文教学中隐藏着许多可供发散思维的信息源，教师要善于捕捉，鼓励学生打破思维定势，从新角度、新观念出发认识事物，变通思考，敢于发表与众不同的见解，提出解决问题的新方法，并赋诸笔端。

1、 文尾续写法

依据课文故事结尾的发展情况，猜测、想象故事可能继续发展的趋势，进行续写。一些课文结尾给人以模糊的答案或造成悬念。如《狼和小羊》，狼向小羊扑去后结果怎样?可让学生猜测小羊的不同命运。即使没有明显的悬念结尾，教师也可故意设置续写的提示。如教学《最大的麦穗》这篇课文时，我安排了续写弟子们第二次摘麦穗时的情景的训练，进行思维的扩散训练;教学《聂荣臻和日本小姑娘》这篇课文时，让学生续写四十年后美穗子带着子女前来看望聂将军时的感人情景。总之，续写可突破思维的唯一性、集中性，让学生的思维生发开去，以提高学生的创新思维。

2、 写读后感法

一千个读者就有一千个哈姆雷特。写读后感应鼓励学生力求从问题的不同思考点出发，选取一点，抒发感慨，写出自己独特的感受，让立意出新。如写《负荆请罪》的读后感，有学生从蔺相如出发写为人应宽容大度;有学生从廉颇出发写处事应知错就改;有学生从赵国的形势出发阐述了生活在集体中应顾

全大局等，形成观点各异，百花齐放的局面。

3、 角色转换法

角色转换法是指依据课文情境，让学生设身处地感受文中人物的处境，根据个人的理解感受和知识经验，各抒己见，设想你如果是文中的角色将如何更好的处理问题。我教学《螳螂捕蝉》设置如下写作训练：你如果是文中的少年将用怎样的办法劝说吴王?同学们有引用“鹬蚌相争，渔翁得利”的典故劝说的，有引用“两败俱伤” 的典故劝说的，有引用“喜鹊搬家”的故事劝说的等，表现出各人的勇气和智慧。

铭仁园高三话题类作文常用短语与句型荟萃(一)----旅游&交通

本话题主要包括：1.旅游；2.描述一次旅程；

针对本话题，高考命题人员可能会从以下角度来命题。

1.描述个人旅游经历 2. 谈旅行中的不文明现象 3 .太空旅游、生态旅游 4.度假方式的变化及其原因5.旅游计划的拟订、准备及注意事项 一、话题常用单词

1. travel/journey/trip/tour n.旅游，旅行 16. a group/organized tour n. 团体游

2. travel agency n. 旅行社 17. a self-driving tripn. 自驾游

3. guiden. 向导，导游 18. destinationn. 目的地

4. flight ticketn. 机票 19. sceneryn. 风景，景色

5. passport n. 护照 20. disadvantage n. 不利条件

6. visan.签证 21. insurancen. 保险

7. identity card(ID) 身份证 22. interesting/ funny/ exciting adj 有趣的

8. tent n. 帐篷 23. enjoyable令人愉快的

9. camp n&vi. 露营 24. memorable 令人难忘的

10. hoteln. 旅馆 25. attractive/fascinatingadj 迷人的

11. necessity n. 必需品 26. boring/dull/tiringadj.无聊的

12. schedule n. 计划表，日程表 27. well-organized adj 组织有序的

13. tourist attractions/places of interest 28. convenient adj 方便的，便利的 /scenic spots/sights旅游景点 29. crowded adj 拥挤的

14. DIY tour n. 自助游 30. severe/seriousadj 严重的 15. space tourism n. 太空旅游

二、话题常用短语

1. go on a wildlife tour/a hiking trip

参加野生动物之旅/去远足

2. be on holiday/a trip to sp 去某地度假/旅行

3. see sb off 送行

4. pay a visit to sp/sb 参观某地/拜访某人

5. show sb around 带领某人参观

6. set out/off 出发，启程

7. check in 登记住宿

8. check out 结账退房

9. have a good time/enjoy oneself/have fun 玩的开心

10. broaden one’s horizon/mind 开拓视野

11. eich one’s knowledge丰富知识

11. experience foreign culture 体验国外的文化

12. join a tour group参加旅游团 三、话题常用句型

1. He who travels far knows much. 远行者见闻多。

2. Travelling can eich our knowledge.旅游可以丰富我们的知识。

3. Travelling enables us to learn a lot that we cannot get from books 旅游可以使我们学到很多在书本上学不到的东西。

4. It’s my pleasure to tell you how to get to the Great Wall. 我很乐意告诉你如何到达长城。

5. Welcome to Sichuan. I feel it an honor to be your guide. 欢迎来到四川。我很荣幸能够担任你的导游。

6. I will keep you company to visit numerous places of interest.我将陪你去参加许多的名胜古迹

7. A visit to Sichuan will be an unforgettable experience. 到四川旅行将会令人难忘。

8. There are many places of interest in Sichuan, such as…四川有很多名胜古迹，比如…

9. Sichuan is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest.

四川有很多景点，并且享有很有世界著名的名胜古迹。

10. However, travelling may cause some problems. 然而，旅行可能会造成一些问题。

11. Great changes have taken place in the ways that people spend their holidays in the past decades. 在近几十年内，人们的度假方式已经发生了巨大的变化。

四、佳作欣赏

nick,将于八月来四川旅游，特来询问，有关旅游景点的情况，请根据，提供的要求写封回信，表示盼望他的到来

要点：1.旅游资源：许多世界著名的风景名胜，如九寨沟（海子：清澈见底，色彩斑斓）；都

江堰水利工程（2000年的历史，仍发挥作用） 2.相关信息： 气侯适宜，交通方便。

Dear Nick,

Im glad to hear that youre coming to Sichuan in August. Youve made the wise choice to travel here. Sichuan Province is rich in tourist attractions and enjoys many world-famous places of interest, such as Jiuzhaigou and Dujiangyan Irrigation Projcet.

Jiuzhaigou is well known for its beautiful lakes, of which the water is clear and looks colorful. It can excite visitors imagination. Another attraction is Dujiangyan Irrigation Project. It was built over 2,000 years ago and is still playing an important part in irrigation today. Besides, the nice weather and convenient transportation here can make your trip more enjoyable. Im sure youll have a good time. Im looking forward to your coming.

假设你是李华，父母答应你今年高三毕业后去美国进行为期10天的观光旅游。请你给美国网友Lucy 写一封电子邮件，咨询以下事情：1. 不随团旅游的食宿、交通等问题。2. 必看景点与时间安排 3. 邀请她到中国观光。

Dear Lucy

How are you doingMy parents have just promised me to make a 10-day tour of America after my graduation from senior high school this summer, which will be a good chance for me to experience American culture and practice my oral English.

As I don’t like to join a tour group, could you please offer me some advice on where to stay, what to eat and how to travel in such a short timeI would appreciate it if you could tell the must-see attractions and the time arrangement. Your advice will surely make my visit enjoyable and worthwhile.

Welcome to China at your convenience. Looking forward to your early reply.

范文二：文明旅游

有些旅游景点的文物景观遭到了严重的破坏，致使最近文明旅游的倡议越来越受重视，因此就“游客可付费在仿造长城上涂写留言”发表看法。

内容包括：(1)谈谈对某些人喜欢在旅游景点随便涂鸦留言的看法;

(2)对专门修一段仿造城墙让游客付高价留言的做法你是赞成还是反对，并简要陈述你的理由。

It is reported that tourists to China’s Great Wall can now leave their mark on a fake(伪造的) wall recently built near the real wall in Badaling if they pay 999 yuan.

In China, many visitors have the hobby of carving graffiti on places of interest, especially on some famous cultural relics. Last year I went to the Great Wall and found many people had left names and ugly words on the Wall, which destroys many historic bricks. In my opinion, such people should feel ashamed of leaving their marks on the great relics which were created by our ancestors.

So personally, I quite agree with this brilliant project though it has caused criticism from some people. The Great Wall would be ruined one day if we didn’t take any steps to protect it. The fake wall is a really good idea because it will protect our relics as well as making profits from the project

小学生写作文是很重要的，但很多学生并不知道该怎么去写。下面就是小编给大家整理的小学生作文怎么写内容，希望对大家有用。

小学生作文写作技巧

一、作文要学会积累

“读书破万卷，下笔如有神”，“巧妇难为无米之炊”古人这些总结，从正反两方面说明了“积累”在写作中的重要性。“平时靠积累，考场凭发挥”，这是考场学子的共同体会。

(一)语言方面要建立“语汇库”。语汇是文章的细胞。广义的语汇，不仅指词、短语的总汇，还包括句子、句群。建立“语汇库”途径有二：第一是阅读。平时要广泛阅读书籍、报刊，并做好读书笔记，把一些优美的词语、句子、语段摘录在特定的本子上，也可以制作读书卡片上。第二是生活。平时要捕捉大众口语中鲜活的语言，并把这些语言记在随身带的小本子或卡片上，这样日积月累、集腋成裘，说话就能出口成章，作文就会妙笔生花。

(二)要加强材料方面的积累。材料是文章的血肉。许多学生由于平时不注意积累素材，每到作文时就去搜肠挂肚，或者胡编或者抄袭。解决这一问题的方法是积累素材。平时有条件的可带着摄像机、录音机、深入观察生活、积极参与生活，并与写生、、写日记、写观察笔记等形式，及时记录家庭生活、校园生活、社会生活中的见闻。记录时要抓住细节，把握人、事、物、景的特征。这样，写出的文章就有血有肉。

(三)要加强思想方面的积累。观点是文章的灵魂。文章中心不明确，或立意不深刻，往往说明作者思想肤浅。因此，有必要建立“思想库”。方法有二：第一要善思。“多一份思考，多一份收获。”平时要深入思考，遇事多问问“为什么”、“是什么”、“怎么样”。这样就能透过现象看本质。还要随时把思维的“火花”、思索的结论记录下来。第二要辑录，也就是要摘录名人名言，格言警句等。

总之，作文要加强积累，建立好“语汇库”、“素材库”、“思想库”这三大写作仓库，并要定期盘点、整理、分门别类，且要不断充实、扩容。

二、写好作文先学会观察

鲁迅先生在回答文学青年“如何才能写出好文章”的问题时强调了两点：一是多看，二是多练。这里的“多看”即指多观察。这就说明：要写好文章，要掌握娴熟的文章写作手法，就要多观察，学会观察，观察是写作的必要前提和基矗

俄国小说家契诃夫就这样谆谆告诫初学者：“作家务必要把自己锻炼成一个目光敏锐永不罢休的观察家!——要把自己锻炼到观察简直成习惯，仿佛变成第二个天性。”把观察锻炼成习惯，锻炼成第二天性，这是一种很需要时间去磨练的功夫，是很有作用，很了不起的功夫。

要留心观察身边的人、事、景、物，从中猎取你作文时所需要的材料：你要对一些看似不大实则很有意义的事情产生兴趣，注意观察起因、过程和结果;你要留意校园花坛里的植物一年四季如何变化它的颜色，学会刨根问底，弄清这些变化的来龙去脉;你要走向社会，同更多的人接触，观察他们的一言一行，要思索一些东西，随时将它们汇入自己思想的长河。这就是观察的过程，观察过程中要注意以下几点：

(一)观察决不要仅仅局限于“用眼看”。广义的更有实际意义的观察是指要将人的五官全部调动起来：用耳朵去聆听，用身体去感受，更重要的是要用心、用脑去思索，这样的观察才会更加细腻、深刻。

(二)观察过程中要注意运用好“烂笔头”。俗语说得好：好记性不如烂笔头。好多同学每天看到的挺多，思索的也挺多，但是不善于随时记下来，这样就会使观察到的材料付之东去，许多有价值的东西也会白白浪费掉。

(三)观察尤其要注意持之以恒。别犯“脑热脖，三分钟的热度对与写好作文是没有益处的，你要将观察生活、思索生活贯穿于你生活的每一天，这样你才会写出妙文佳作来。

学会观察对于写好作文有着巨大的奠基和推动作用，离开了观察，你往往会感到难以下笔。愿你学会观察，不断培养，提高赞成的观察能力，在写作实践中取得得大的进步。

1、重视增加阅读量是提高英语写作的途径之一

目前，考生在进行大量阅读的同时，应注重所读材料的文章结构以及连接词的运用(ontheotherhand，however，furthermore)、作者的表达方式(词汇、习惯用语和典型句子的使用)、作者是如何进行叙述和议论的。

2、在教师的指导下，平时应勤写多练

练习写作应从基本功抓起。在中译英翻译训练过程中，加强积累适量的词汇、词组和增加各种类型句子的运用。把握好各种句型和词汇的搭配，并从各类题材和体裁着手，多阅读好的范文。然后模仿写作，作文写好之后，一般都要修改。

第一遍收笔后，先看一看结构，然后从字词上推敲，使文章“充实”起来。更重要的是经老师修改过的作文一定要仔细地看一至两遍，然后再认真地抄写一遍，收获将会很大。

3、英文写作“四步走”

由于时间限制，考试时必须在所限定的时间内完成英语作文。英语作文步骤如下：

（1)作文动笔之前一般都要先打腹稿。在确立中心上、运用材料上、篇章结构上，充分酝酿。

（2)考虑好想写多少句子，该用哪些动词和词组等。

（3)边写边思考内容的连贯性，语言和句子的准确性。

（4)写完后一定要再细看一遍。

巧设悬念

把文章后面将要表现的内容，先在前面作一个提示，但不马上解答，以引起读者的好奇兴趣，产生急于看下去的迫切心情，这样文章的开头，我们称为巧设悬念。它的好处是能避免结构上的单调，使文章的情节波澜起伏，引人入胜。

一线串珠

记叙文的线索是贯穿全文、将材料串连起来的一条主线，它把文章的各个部分联结成一个统一、和谐的有机体。如果说丰富而生动的材料是一颗颗珍珠，那么线索就是将这些珍珠串连起来的一条线。

记叙文的线索主要有实物、人物、事件、时间、地点以及以作者的思想感情等。无论采取哪种线索，都必须从表现文章的中心思想和体现各种材料之间的内在联系出发，灵活巧妙地确定。

以小见大

以小见大，就是以小题材表现大主题的方法。生活中有些材料看起来似乎很平常，但却包含了深刻的意义。“一滴水也可以反映太阳的光辉”。只要善于透过现象发现本质，小材料同样能反映深刻的主题。如《一件珍贵的衬衫》。

穿插流动

粗笔勾勒

粗笔勾勒法就是用寥寥的几笔重点勾勒出人物外貌的主要特征。采用粗笔勾勒法描写人物肖像，可以对人物的身材、体型、衣着、容貌、神情、姿态、风度的某一方面或几个方面作简要的勾勒。

运用粗笔勾勒法描写人物肖像要抓住人物的最主要的特征，用朴实的文字简略地写出来，不宜用过多的形容词、过多的比喻。其次要简练传神，通过寥寥几笔勾勒出人物的大致形象。

曲径通幽

杨朔的散文《荔枝蜜》意在由蜜蜂而赞颂劳动人民的崇高品质，并表达自己向劳动人民学习的意愿。但文章并没有直接道出这一主题，而是通过展示作者对蜜蜂思想感情的变化，曲折有致地表达了主题。作者开头写自己对蜜蜂在感情上“疙疙瘩瘩”，接着写自己因吃了荔枝蜜而“想去看蜜蜂”，然后又写了蜜蜂的辛勤劳动与养蜂人的介绍。文章结尾写作者做梦“变成一只小蜜蜂”。由此可见，“曲径通幽”是指一种不是开门见山，直抒胸臆，而是曲折委婉地逐步显现主题的谋篇手法。

运用“曲径通幽”法，要注意两点：(一)“曲径”是手段，“通幽”是目的，手段要为目的服务。(二)行文的曲折应适当有度，不要为曲折而曲折。

烘托艺术

烘托艺术原是中国画的技法名称，是指渲染某一部分，衬托出另一主要部分来。把这种手法运用到文章的构思中来，就是从侧面通过描绘某件事、景或人的方法来衬托出主要人或事物，又称“衬托法”。衬托，也叫映衬。用类似的或反面的事物，使主要事物意思更加鲜明突出，从而达到强烈的表达效果。如“红花还须绿叶扶”。有了陪衬的事物，被陪衬的事物才会显得突出，才能得到更加充分的说明。

1、衬托，可分正衬和反衬。

正衬，就是用类似的事物，从正面去陪衬。烘托主要事物。如“风萧萧兮易水寒，壮士一去兮不复返。”用冷风寒水来衬托壮士此行的悲壮。又如“蓝天衬着矗立的巨大雪峰”，用蓝天衬雪峰，使雪峰更高大

反衬，就是利用同主要事物相反或相异的事物作陪衬。如上例中的蓝天的蓝，来衬托雪峰的白，使雪峰更洁白。又如“蝉噪林愈静，鸟鸣山更幽”，以有声衬无声。

2、运用衬托要爱憎分明，要宾主分明，陪衬事物与被陪衬事物，要让人一看便清楚，不能喧宾夺主。

3、衬托和对比的区别：

对比，是把两种不同的事物或同一事物的两个不同方面放在一起相互比较。它与反衬有些相似，但不同。对比，意在比，突出的对象是双方的，对立两事物无主宾之分。

衬托，意在衬，两事物有主宾之分，突出的是主要一方。如：“先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐”与“已是悬崖百丈冰，犹有花枝俏”，前句是对比，后句是反衬。

画龙点睛

画龙点睛是指在适当的时候以一二句议论，点明事物、人物、景物的意义之所在，或揭示作品主题，醒人之耳目，给人以启迪。点睛之处可以是在篇中，也可在篇末。

铺垫蓄势

铺垫也称铺叙衬垫，它是为了突出主要的人物或事物而铺叙另外的人物或事物以作衬垫。运用铺垫写法是为了蓄积气势，是为了突出文章主旨。陶铸《松树的风格》前几段的大量文字浓墨重彩地描绘松树的形象，赞美它“要求于人的甚少，给予人的甚多”，又用杨柳、桃李同松树作对比，补充说明松树“给人以启发、以深思和勇气”，直到第九段作者才笔锋一转，点明题旨说：“我每次看到松树，想到它那种崇高的风格的时候，就联想到共产主义风格。”原来此篇前面对松树的描绘和赞美是铺垫蓄势，后面对共产主义风格的赞美才是全文的主旨。这篇文章正因为有了前面形象感人的铺垫，后面入题也才显得格外坚实有力。杜牧的《阿房宫赋》第一段极力描绘阿房宫规模的宏伟和建筑的壮丽;第二段极力渲染阿房宫中美女之多和珍宝之富;第三段夹叙夹议，论述秦王朝统治者穷奢极欲，大营宫室，招致国家迅速覆亡、宫室一旦毁灭的必然结果;最后第四段作者以“呜呼”领起，发出深沉的议论慨叹，指出秦统治者要能爱天下之民，国家就不会败亡，表明秦之灭亡乃是一个深刻的教训。这篇赋，前两段的描绘渲染，是为后两段的议论铺垫蓄势，描绘渲染是议论的基础，议论则揭示主题，突出文旨，这正是铺垫蓄势的用意所在。

运用铺垫手法须注意两点：一是要注意写好铺叙的那一部分，只有将这部分写充分了，才能有效地蓄积气势。二是运用铺垫要自然，如果为铺垫而铺垫，过多地堆砌，反会暴露出人为的痕迹，那效果就适得其反了。

前后照应

前后照应法可以使文章严谨连贯，浑然一体，又突出内容和结构上的内在联系。照应一般有以下几种：

1、内容和标题相照应。这种照应方法常常是内容安排多处和题目照应，或在恰当的地方直接、间接地点明题意。如《背影》，文中多次描写“背影”，既与标题“背影”相照应，又进一步点明题旨，充分表达了作者对父亲深深的思念之情。

2、行文中间照应。这种照应方法就是在文章前面写事，后面行文交代前面所写事的结果，使内容相互补充，层层深入。

3、结尾与开头照应法。在文章的结尾处对开头交代的事情作必要的提及，使文章首尾一致，成为有机的整体。如《白杨礼赞》一文，开头和结尾照应，不但使文章结构显得非常完整，而且使作者的赞美之情得到了淋漓尽致的抒发。

镜头剪辑

镜头指影视所拍摄的一系列画面。镜头剪辑用于写作，指选取一组生动的画面来表现主题。此类文章是将所写的人物按照或故事、或画面、或片段、有序地写下来，其间的每一部分都可单独成文，组合起来又是一个完整的篇章。这种又被人们称为“冰糖葫芦式”结构，由于其形式新颖，巧妙精致而受到好评。

卒章显志

在文章结尾时，用一两句话点明中心、主题的手法就叫卒章显志，也叫“篇末点题”，“志”就是指文章的主题、中心。恰当运用这种手法可以增加文章的深刻性、感染力和结构美，有“画龙点睛”的艺术效果。

时空交织

在记叙一件较复杂的事情时，在同一时间段中，先叙甲地的情况，再叙乙地的情况，转而再写甲地的人事，这就是“时空交织”的文章构制方法。它有利于结构紧凑，文字简练。早年有一篇著名的通讯，题为《为了六十一个阶级弟兄》，说的是平陆县六十一个民工突然发生食物中毒事故。作者先写民工中毒后的场面，接着写卫生部接到紧急求援电报，再写平陆医院抢救经过，转而又写北京有关医药商店调运紧急药品的情况，如此轮流反复交织的叙说，构成了一曲动人心弦的凯歌。当然，采用这种方法有一定难度。

有时，在叙述一件事的过程中，作者运用插叙、补叙等手法，也可构成“时空交织”的感觉，我们把这种谋篇方法也纳入“时空交织”中。

一波三折

记叙性文章要避免平铺直叙，记流水账，如能写得波澜起伏，就能引人入胜，耐看。

俄国作家柯罗连科的写景小品《火光》通篇运用了象征手法，但从字面上看，数百字的短文，由作者的感受引发了一波三折的景物变化，黑夜泛舟，火光又明又亮，好像就在眼前，这是开头展示的基本景象;船夫不以为然，认为还远着呢，兴起一波;自己从不相信到信服，又兴起一波;由“非常遥远”到“毕竟就在前头”，重要的是“必须加劲划桨”再兴一波

“一波三折”，“波折”要入情入理，让读者产生情理之中、意料之外的感觉，方能做到引人入胜。而脱离生活，故弄玄虚的“波折”非但不能吸引读者，还会适得其反。

欲扬先抑

“欲扬先抑”与“欲抑先扬”是相反的两种布局方法。杨朔写过一篇著名的散文《荔枝蜜》。他在文中说小时候因为被蜜蜂螫过，因此对它总有疙疙瘩瘩的厌恶之感，但后来在广东从化参观了养蜂场，尝到了荔枝蜜，又听了养蜂老人的一番介绍，对小生灵蜜蜂顿生敬仰之情，它那勤恳、无私的品质正体现了中国劳动人民的美德。这是典型的欲扬先抑写作手法。所谓欲扬先抑，是指本要大力颂扬的对象，而落笔开始却贬抑它，批评它。前文的“抑”，反衬了后文的“扬”。采用这种写作手法，要自然合理，切不可牵强生硬。