自考英语 英语写作基础优秀20篇

导语：语文考试内容所占比例在未来的学习中越来越大，那么如何让语文考试锦上添花呢?以下是小编为大家精心整理的小学语文写作的基础知识，欢迎大家参考！

(一)作文基础知识

1. 审清题意：“五审”：

(1)审清体裁(记叙文、应用文、说明文)。

(2)审清题材(人、物、事、景)。

(3)审清范围(时间、地点、人称、事件、对象具体限制)。

(4)审清主题(中心思想)。

(5)审清其他要求(附加要求)。

2. 确定主题：“四要”：

(1)主题要正确(反应生活实际)。

(2)主题要集中(一个文章不能多个主题)。

(3)主题要鲜明(明确表达自己对事物的态度和立场)。

(4)主题要深刻(深挖内涵思想)。

3. 选择材料：“四要”：

(1)围绕主题选择材料(多写与主题相关的内容)。

(2)选择真实的材料(真实可信，具有代表性和典型性)。

(3)选择新颖的材料(新人新事)。

(4)选择独有的材料(具有创新性)。

4. 编写提纲“五点”：

(1)拟好题目。

(2)确定主题。

(3)段落安排。

(4)每段的主要意思。

(5)重点段落的层次安排和内容。

5. 修改文章“五看”：

(1)是否切题。

(2)主题、思想是否明确、突出。

(3)看材料是否符合主题、内容是否具体、完整。

(4)看语言是否通顺、用词是否准确，有无错别字。

(5)看标点是否正确。

(二)看图作文 “一看二写，四要两注意”

“一看二写”：先看图，再写作文。

“四要”：仔细观察图画；展开合理想象;突出主题、抓住重点;分清主次，具体描写。

“两注意”：看清全画面内容;分清图上内容主次和表达的中心。

(三)记叙文·记事

1. 写清楚事件发生的时间、地点以及事情的发生、发展和结果。

2. 事件经过写具体。

3. 按事件的发展顺序来写。

4. 注意表达真情实感。

(四)记叙文·写人

1. 确定写作对象。

2. 确定人物的思想品质。

3. 选择典型的具体事例。

4. 抓住最能表现人物思想品质的外貌、语言、动作、心理、环境进行描写。

5. 注意表达自己的真实感情。

(五)记叙文·状物——“五要三注意”

1. “五要”：

(1)抓住物的特征。

(2)按一定顺序写。

(3)既写静态又写动态。

(4)展开想象，运用拟人等手法把内容写具体。

(5)托物言志，借物抒情。

2. “三注意”：

(1)仔细观察、抓住特征。

(2)明确中心，展开想象。

(3)根据内容，安排顺序。

(六)记叙文·写景

注意六点：

1. 抓住景物特征。

2. 注意时间、地点、气候等因素的影响。

3. 景物特点安排恰当的顺序。

4. 采用多种手法表现景物特点及变化。

5. 写出自己的感受。

6. 借景抒情。

(七)应用文

1.应用文大多以记叙文为基础，但是还要特别注意的是各种应用文的格式。

2. 常见应用文类型：书信、读后感、通知、留言条、表扬信、建议书和日记。

3. 具体格式：

(1)标题居中。(除了书信、留言条和日记没有标题，其他皆有)

(2)正文：另起一行空两格。

(3)署名和日期：先写署名，另起一行写清“*年*月*日”。

1.individuals,characters, folks替换(people ,persons)

2: positive, favorable, rosy (美好的)，promising

(有希望的)，perfect, pleasurable , excellent, outstanding, superior替换good

3:dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill (有害的)替换bad

如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive替换

eg.An army of college students indulge themselves in playing games, enjoying romance with girls/boys or killing time passively in their dorms. When it approaches to graduation ,as a result, they records are less impressive.

4.(an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of ,a host of, many, if not most)替换many.

注：用many, if not most 一定要小心，many后一定要有词。

Eg. Many individuals, if not most, harbor the idea that….同理 用most, if not all ,替换most.

5: a slice of, quiet a few , several替换some

6:harbor the idea that, take the attitude that,

hold the view that, it is widely shared that,

it is universally acknowledged that)替think

(因为是书面语，所以要加that)

7:affair ,business ,matter 替换thing

8: shared 代 common

9.reap huge fruits 替换get many benefits )

10:for my part ,from my own perspective 替换 in my opinion

11:Increasing(ly),growing 替换more and more( 注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing.修饰形容词，副词用increasingly.

Eg.sth has gained growing popularity.

popular with the advancement of sth.

12.little if anything, 或little or nothing替换hardly

13..beneficial, rewarding替换helpful,

14.shopper,client,consumer,purchaser, 替换customer

15.exceedingly,extremely, intensely 替换very

16.hardly necessary, hardly inevitable ... 替换 unnecessary, avoidable

17.sth appeals to sb, sth exerts a tremendous fascination on sb 替换sb take interest in / sb. be interested in

18.capture ones attention替换attract ones attention.

19.facet,demension,sphere代aspect

20.be indicative of ,be suggestive of ,be fearful of代 indicate, suggest ,fear

21.give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger 替换cause.

22. There are several reasons behind sth 替换..reasons for sth

23.desire 替换want.

24.pour attention into 替换pay attention to

25.bear in mind that 替换remember

26. enjoy, possess 替换have(注意process是过程的意思)

27. interaction替换communication

28.frown on sth替换 be against , disagree with sth

29.to name only a few, as an example替换 for example, for instance

30. next to / virtually impossible,替换nearly / almost impossible

记叙文是记人叙事的文章，它主要是用于说明事件的时间、背景、起因、过程及结果，即我们通常所说的五个" W "( what, who, when, where, why )和一个" H "( how )。记叙文的重点在于"述说"和"描写"，因此一篇好的记叙文要叙述条理清楚，描写生动形象。下面就谈谈英语记叙文的特点和写好记叙文的基本要领。

一、记叙文的特点

1. 叙述的人称

英语的记叙文一般是以第一或第三人称的角度来叙述的。用第一称表示的是由叙述者亲眼所见、亲耳所闻的经历。它的优点在于能把故事的情节通过"我"来传达给读者，使人读后感到真实可信，如身临其境。如：

The other day, I was driving along the street. Suddenly, a car lost its control and ran directly towards me fast. I was so frightened that I quickly turned to the left side. But it was too late. The car hit my bike and I fell off it.

用第三人称叙述，优点在于叙述者不受"我"活动范围以内的人和事物的限制，而是通过作者与读者之外的第三者，直接把故事中的情节展现在读者面前，文章的客观性很强。如：

Little Tom was going to school with an umbrella, for it was raining hard. On the way, he saw an old woman walking in the rain with nothing to cover. Tom went up to the old woman and wanted to share the umbrella with her, but he was too short. What could he do? Then he had a good idea.

2. 动词的时态

在记叙文中，记和叙都离不开动词。所以动词出现率最高，且富于变化。记叙文中用得最多的是动词的过去的，这是英语记叙文区别于汉语记叙文的关键之处。英语写作的优美之处就在于这些动词时态的变化，正是这一点才使得所记、所叙有鲜活的动态感、鲜明的层次感和立体感。

3. 叙述的顺序

记叙一件事要有一定的顺序。无论是顺叙、倒叙、插叙还是补叙，都要让读者能弄清事情的来龙去脉。顺叙最容易操作，较容易给读者提供有关事情的空间和时间线索。但这种方法也容易使文章显得平铺直叙，读起来平淡乏味。倒叙、插叙、补叙等叙述方法能有效地提高文章的结构效果，让所叙之事跌宕起伏，使读者在阅读时思维产生较大的跳跃，从而为文章所吸引，深入其中。但这些方法如果使用不当，则容易弄巧成拙，使文章结构散乱，头绪不清，让读者不知所云。

4. 叙述的过渡

过渡在上下文中起着承上启下、融会贯通的作用。过渡往往用在地点转移或时间、事件转换以及由概括说明到具体叙述时。如：

In my summer holidays, I did a lot of things. Apart form doing my homework, reading an English novel, watching TV and doing some housework, I went on a trip to Qingdao. It is really a beautiful city. There are many places of interest to see. But what impressed me most was the sunrise.

The next morning I got up early. I was very happy because it was a fine day. By the time I got to the beach, the clouds on the horizon were turning red. In a little while, a small part of the sun was gradually appearing. The sun was very red, not shining. It rose slowly. At last it broke through the red clouds and jumped above the sea, just like a deep-red ball. At the same time the clouds and the sea water became red and bright.

What a moving and unforgettable scene!

5. 叙述与对话

引用故事情节中主要人物的对话是记叙文提高表现力的一种好方法。适当地用直接引语代替间接的主观叙述，可以客观生动地反映人物的性格、品质和心理状态，使记叙生动、有趣，使文章内容更加充实、具体。试比较下面两段的叙述效果：

I was in the kitchen, and I was cooking something. Suddenly I heard a loud noise from the front. I thought maybe someone was knocking the door. I asked who it was but I heard no reply. After a while I saw my cat running across the parlor. I realized it was the cat. I felt released.

这本来应是一段故事性很强的文字，但经作者这么一写，就不那么吸引人了。原因是文中用的都是叙述模式，没有人物语言，把"悬念"给冲淡了。可作如下调整：

I was in the kitchen cooking something. "Crash!" a loud noise came from the front. Thinking someone was knocking at the door, I asked, "Who?" No reply. After a while, I saw my cat running across the parlor. "Its you." I said, quite released.

二、写好记叙文的基本要领

1. 头绪分明，脉络清楚

写好记叙文，首先要头绪分明，脉络清楚，明确文章要求写什么。要对所写的事件或人物进行分析，弄清事件发生、发展一直到结束的整个过程，然后再收集选取素材。这些素材都应该跟上述五个" W "和一个" H "有关。尽管不是每篇记叙文里都必须包括这些" W "和" H "，但动笔之前，围绕五个" W "和" H "进行构思是必不可少的。

2. 突出中心，详略得当

在文章的框架确定后，对支持故事的素材的选取是很关键的。选材要注意取舍，应该从表现文章主题的需要出发，分清主次，定好详略。要突出重点，详写细述那些能表现文章主题的重要情节，略写粗述那么非关键的次要情节。面面俱到反而使情节罗列化，使人不得要领。这一点是写好记叙文要解决的一个基本问题，也需要一定的技巧。如：

One night a man came to our house and told me, "There is a family with eight children. They have not eaten for days." I took some food with me and went.

When I finally came to that family, I saw the faces of those little children disfigured (破坏外貌) by hunger. There was no sorrow or sadness in their faces, just the deep pain of hunger.

I gave the rice to the mother. She divided the rice in two, and went out, carrying half the rice. When she came back, I asked her, "Where did you go?" she gave me this simple answer, "To my neighbors - they are hungry also!"

3. 用活语言，准确生动

记叙文要用具体的事件和生动的语言对人、事、物加以叙述。一篇好的记叙文的语言既要准确、生动，又要表现力强，这样才能把人、事描写得具体生动，其可读性才强。试比较下面一篇例文修改的前后效果。

原文：

One day Xiaoqiang was wandering away. He was soon lost among people and traffic. He could not find the way back home and started crying. Just then, two young students who were passing by found him standing alone in front of a shop and crying. They went up to Xiaoqiang and asked him what had happened. Xiaoqiang told them how he got lost and where he lived. The two students decided to take him home. Mother was pleased to see Xiaoqiang come back safe and sound. She invited the two students into the house and gave them some money, but they didnt take it. She served them with tea but they left.

修改后：

The other day, five-year-old Xiaoqiang left home alone and wandered happily in the street. After some time, he felt hungry so he wanted to go back home. But he found he was lost among the crowded people and heavy traffic. When he could not find the way home, he started and crying. Just then, two young students who were passing by from school found him sanding crying in front of a shop. They immediately went up to him.

"Little boy, why are you standing here crying?" they asked.

"I want Mom, I go home." said the boy, still crying.

"Dont worry, well send you home."

And they spent the next two hours looking for the boys house. With the help of a policeman, they finally found it.

When the worried mother saw her son come back safe and sound, she was so thankful and she invited the students into her house. Gratefully, she offered them some money, saying it was a way to express her thanks, but the young students firmly refused it and left without even a cup of tea.

高考作文是高考的半壁江山，但高考作文的备考工作确实让人犯难。学生在经过高中三年的写作训练之后，对各种文体的写作都有了整体的感知。但在具体写作时，常常内容单薄，空洞无物，或者是不知如何选材表达怎样的主题。

其主要原因还是在于平时缺少甚至没有积累相关的素材，能够有力地表现和说明中心的材料太少，或是所选的材料不够典型、新颖，素材贫乏，缺乏积累与运用。高考作文的实质，关键是立足在考场作文上实现“两个转化”：

第一，由“物”到“意”的转化;第二，由“意”到“文”的转化。由“物”到“意”的转化，就是怎样从积累的生活素材、知识素材中提炼出作者的思想，作为文章的立意;由“意”到“文”的转化，就是把自己的思考、思想和文章的立意用文字表达出来。所以说，考场作文的写作过程，就是用最好的文字把最好的思想表达出来的过程。

最好的思想表达，来自对知识素材的积累，来自对生活素材的内化。因此，我们在高考作文备考之中，一方面要指导学生如何积累作文素材;另一方面就要训练学生在作文写作当中灵活运用素材的能力，其基本策略是：积累——内化——运用(表达)——反思比照。

一、积累归纳

首先要指导学生重读在必修、选修教材中的经典文段，着重在于指点学生从以下几个方面进行积累，并思考这些素材可以应用到作文的哪些方面。

下面以教材中王安石的《游褒禅山记》为例，谈谈重读文本，积累作文素材有哪几方面：

(一)积累作者文章的观点或文章的中心(以文章中的第3段为例)

如：“古人之观於天地、山川、草木、虫鱼、鸟兽，往往有得，以其求思之深，而无不在也。”

——知微见著，很多大道理往往存在于细微的事物之中，要善于发现和思考。

“而世之奇伟、瑰怪、非常之观，常在於险远，而人之所罕至焉，故非有志者不能至也。”

——世间美好的风景常在路途险远、人迹罕至之处，只有不畏惧艰辛的人才能看到最美丽的景色。

(二)积累课文中出现过的哲理故事或文章表述的事例

如在《游褒禅山记》一文中的主题是什么?可以进行归纳整理并复习：本文记叙了王安石和几位同伴游褒祥山的经过，并借此生发议论，提出了做人和做学问的道理。

(三)积累作者生平的轶事

根据课文提供的作者生平经历或写作背景作为线索，查找相关的资料，积累作者的1—2个小故事，在作文中可以充当有效的事实论据。

(四)积累文章中优美的语句段落、旬式或古诗文中的经典名句

王安石的名句积累：不畏浮云遮望眼，只缘身在最高层。(《登飞来峰》)

(五)积累文章结构的写法

【积累写法】本文在记游的基础上说理，记叙和议论相结合，前后照应。

二、理解内化

在积累的基础上，第二步要做的就是，引导学生进一步加深对课文素材的理解，尝试将一些显浅的话题勾连起来，发散思维，看看从课内积累的素材实际上可以怎样用。

这个阶段，我们可以创设一些情景，让学生将类似的人物，或者类似的经历，进行梳理，给出一些拓展学生思维的练习，让学生对素材的使用有个总体概念。

如以下的“思维热身”活动：

根据课前预习完成的作文素材积累表格中的课文事迹、作者事例和名言警句，试从以下十个素材中任选三个连成一段有明确中心论点的话：

司马迁;袁隆平与“野稗”;贝多芬《命运交响曲》;谢坤山《在画布里搏斗的人生》;杜甫“安得广厦千万问，大庇寒士俱欢颜!风雨不动安如山，呜呼!吾庐独破受冻死亦足”;鲁迅;文天祥“留取丹心照汗青”;“布衣总统”孙中山;曹操“山不厌高，水不厌深”;比尔盖茨。

学生刚开始运用并不是太熟练，只能勉强地运用三个素材，在表述方面可能还不够准确，这个阶段教师要注重看学生用得对不对，三个类似的素材得出的观点是不是一致，是不是一个明确的中心论点。

这个活动，可以放在每一节课的前五分钟，如同是一个热身游戏，启发学生思维，激发学生兴趣。开始时可先由教师进行点评，训练一段时间之后，就可以换成由学生互相评点。这样则更有利于训练学生在考场作文上正确选材，富有针对性，从而使论据更丰富二

三、运用表达

在运用的过程中，如写议论文要引用到课内素材作为论据材料说明中心论点，那么具体还要注意以下几个原则：第一，议论文中事实材料运用的基本要求是准确到位、简洁流畅。第二，材科运用要紧扣话题提炼出来的中心论点，最好能够点出话题的关键词。第三，对

话题的思考辨析不能只是简单的观点加例子，还应有个性的思辩和分析。

在备考之中，这个环节是成败的关键。有效备考能够落实就看最岳这一步怎样引导学生从积累到内化之后的运用。

我们可以分为三个时期来强化训练：第一阶段着重在议论文的框架式练习;第二阶段着重在全文的架构，即准确审题立意后，选材写提纲;第三阶段着重是全文写作，高考作文的实战训练，提升语言和提高发展得分。

(一)第一阶段的操作

这个阶段主要是任意给出1个话题，让学生写出文中论据部分，要求引用课文事例、作者事迹或名言名句：(10分钟)

如：阅读下面材料，按要求作文一：

每一个人都不可能孤立地生活在这个世界上，作为国家、民族的一员，你必须承担责任;作为学校、家庭的一员，你也必须承担责任;对你自己，你更是 责无旁贷。

请以“承担责任”为话题，自定立意，自选文体，自拟标题，写一篇不少于800字的文章。所写内容必须在话题范围之内。(参考“四步十三句”格式)

————————————。立论点)

————————————。(摆论据)

————————————。(议道理)

这个阶段，主要训练学生运用课内素材的能力。启发学生从看到一个话题，经过审题和思考后，能够准确地选出一个阐明中心论点的素材进行论述。

训练时以片段练习为主，在片段写作中强化议论文的写作技巧，运用“四步十三句”的快速成文方法，夹叙夹议，有理有据，规范行文，防止一些学生无的放矢，乱写一通。

(二)第二阶段的操作

这个阶段可以给出1个高考话题作文，让学生在课堂上以即场研讨为基础，运用课本积累的相关素材进行写作。列写出提纲。请同学展示，并点评。(15分钟)

如：2006年高考作文江苏卷：

有人说，世上本无路，走的人多了，也便有了路。有人说，世上本有路，走的人多了，也便没了路。还有人说……请以“人与路”为题写一篇文章。

题目——

第一步——定题【用句：(1)】

第二步——开篇【用句：(2)一(3)】(点材料引入，确立全文论点)

第三步——论证[用句(4)—(11)]

列事例l.第一层(或正或反)【用句(4)—(7)】(立论点——摆论据——议道理)

2.第二层(或反或正)[用句(8)—11)](立论点——摆论据——议道理)

3.可填加事例或多角度排比论证

第四步——收篇[用句：(12)一(13)】(收拢全篇，总结议论)

这个阶段主要是训练学生对议论文整体结构的把握，通过审题、立意后精选素材活用到写作当中，给予他们一个写作的架构，可以帮助大部分畏惧写议论文或者不会写议论文的学生，让他们有据可依，抓住扶手慢慢一步步学写。

(三)第三阶段的操作

这个阶段主要是给予各种作文题目让学生强化练习。从选材构思到下笔实战，这个阶段着重是整体批改学生的作文，给予点拨指导建议。另一方面就是让一些已经熟练掌握这一技巧的学生尝试抛弃第二阶段的格式，让他们多从几个角度来思考，多元选材，锤炼语言，使作文的思路更开阔，行文更流畅，文采更优美。

四、反思比照

以积累课内素材活用为作文论据的复习方法，能够有效备考高考作文：一方面，主要是让学生通过重新阅读学过的课文梳理出有效的资讯;另一方面，能够让学生在短时间里复习高一高二学过的必修、选修课文。

通过复习、整理归纳出教材中的素材，可以打开写作思路，将课文所学内容灵活运用到平时和考场写作中，就能让作文更加丰满，论据更加充实，再不用畏惧字数不够，没话可写等等。

经过一段时间的训练，按照我设计的思路一步步地分专题给予学生定时定量的作文训练，学生提高的效果是比较明显的。主要体现在几次的段考以及全市的一模、二模，学生的作文成绩稳步提高，能够保持好成绩，发挥一直比较稳定，也为语文总分奠定了坚实的基础。

导语：如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练，话题作文的基本要求：话题作文还是要审题，所写内容必须在话题范围之内。“立意自 定”，关键要读懂话题关键词的意旨，若给出导语提示，还应划出导语中包含归结的关键语词。一般初学者，首先要注意让这些关键词贯穿在自己作文的始终，统帅 自己的文意。更多作文写作基础尽在。

如何写好高中作文，对于学生作文的写作基础也要好好的训练,实际效果又发现学生完全没有一般思想认识的基础，真正可见现在所谓合格教育的成效，和高中教学要求的“架空作业”。

一、文章形式的革命——夹叙夹议

尽快脱离初中只重记叙，笼统归结的写法。高中的作文记叙只向最高水平开一条缝，你得复杂记叙，融情思与哲理于一炉，有最动人的细节和最精美的表达，巧妙蕴 含深刻的思辨和无穷的回味，这不是一般人能做到的，更不是学不会议论抒情的同学的避难所。所以，比自己多练议论，远比固守初中记叙的窠臼要有前途。高中的 记叙必须简约，只提炼能说明自己观点的内核，而尽量舍弃叙述的完整过程与细节。叙，惜墨如金；而起始学写议，应力求具体多点分析阐述。

二、文章立意的升华——深入浅出

叙完笼统归结是初中模式作文的又一通病，常常文章的结尾具有宽泛的普适性，而缺乏对文章应有之义作具体针对性的挖掘阐发，常常文章的“穿鞋戴帽”大到可以 套在无数篇文章上，却没什么真正的思考。高中作文倘使还用夹叙夹议，也要对叙的材料反复推敲，找出几例可以统一在一个观点里的材料，就材料的不同侧面来评 析议论，最后上升归结出恰当切题、言之有物的中心。

三、文章表达的提高——点睛生花

好的文笔追求更高效率、更多意蕴。描述中就渗透情思与评析，这是较高水平的表达。一般的叙议分段，也应注意所叙材料紧贴自己的议论，议论应采取逐层推进， 前后分界，避免相互缠绕。但又必须前后连贯，形成一个整体。在文章中一定写好精心组织的关键议论，努力使文章多处呈现运用一定修辞的文采。

下面是小编给大家整理的写作基础技巧汇总的内容，欢迎大家的查看!

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?

十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

一篇文章如果没有一个大意，那么这一篇文章就是华而无实的文章，知识拥有外表而欠缺灵魂的文章。下面是小编为大家搜集整理出来的有关于作文立意的方法，希望可以帮助到大家！

“文以意为主”，“意”就是文章的主题。它是文章的核心与灵魂。立意是一篇文章的根本，它直接关系到文章的选材，布局，乃至文章的深度。中考作文大多是话题或材料作文，没有明确的标准，如何立意就显得至关重要了。作文有了主题思想，文章才有灵魂，选择材料，安排结构，运用语言，也才有依据，那么怎样指导学生立意呢?这里就自己作文教学的几点感悟为例谈谈。

1、正确，有针对性

一篇文章的思想内容正确与否是评价文章好坏的根本依据。话题或材料作文的立意一定要合乎题目要求，切题才算真正的正确。表达出来的思想观点和感情要健康、积极向上。此外，还要有针对性。选取人们最感兴趣的、最能反映人们思想感情的作为主题，文章才能最大限度地激起反响。

2、思想要深刻

意不仅新，还要力求深刻。这就要求我们能够透过事物的现象去挖掘其内在的本质，思考出对人生，对社会有意义和价值的东西，能在一般人认识上再进一步，能发现别人没有发现的那一点，并能给人以启示。初中学生写作，在立意上难以深入，原因往往就在于浅尝辄止，没有深入开掘。所谓开掘就是深入思索，挖出事物最本质的东西来。

3、立意要新颖

如果文章主题一般化，不新颖，大家都雷同，就难以写出好文章，所以立意要新颖。好文章的立意应该是“从意中所有，从语中所无”。也就是说，大家都有这样的想法，但是大家未能表达出来，让你给写出来了，这就是新颖，这就是独创。

立意的独创性并非凭空而来，也不可随意杜撰，它是从生活中来的。只要平时注意观察和体验周围的生活，善于从常见的事物中认识到新的东西，领略到新的涵义，写文章就能出新意。不能看到生活一点现象就拿起来涂涂抹抹，而是在观察和研究生活现象的基础上独辟蹊径，有自己独特的感受和发现。而立意做到新颖巧妙，才能在生活的激流中吸取新思想，获得新感受。

4、简明集中

就立意而言，简明、集中是对主题的要求。相反，主题分散想面面俱到，却面面不到，是立意之大忌。要做到“简明”，就需要高度的概括力。思维不进行概括，表象就无法升华为本质，认识就无法实现理性的飞跃，思想就不可能达到简明、集中了。

“简明”要求思想内容上单一集中。这样可以集中精力，写得深刻，给人以鲜明突出的印象。

总之，好的立意就是文章成功的一半。让我们指导学生作文前围绕上述几点来考虑主题，定能写出思想发光的好文章来。

The Spring Festival, the most important festival to Chinese. Is China the biggest, the most lively, one of the most important ancient traditional festivals, is also unique to Chinese festival.

Festival, is the beginning of the lunar calendar, another name is called New Years day, Spring Festival is the biggest, the most lively, China one of the most important ancient traditional festivals, is also unique to Chinese festival. Is the most concentrated expression of Chinese civilization. Since the western han dynasty, the custom of Spring Festival continues today. The Spring Festival, generally refers to New Years eve and the first day. But in private, in the traditional sense of the Spring Festival is from the Greek festival of the day or month, 23 or 24 people, until the fifteenth, among them with New Years eve and the first day of the first lunar month. How to celebrate this holiday, in one thousand years of history development, formed some relatively fixed customs and habits, there are a lot of handed down also. During the traditional festival, the Spring Festival of the han nationality in our country and most of ethnic minorities have to hold various celebration activities, these activities are to worship deities, worshiping ancestors, blow away the cobwebs, meet jubilee blessing, pray for good harvest as the main content. Form rich and colorful, activities with strong ethnic characteristics. On May 20, 2006, "Spring Festival" folk have been approved by the state council listed in the first batch of state-level non-material cultural heritage list.

The origin of the Spring Festival has a legend, the Chinese ancient times have a kind of call "year" monster, head long feelers, fierce abnormalities. "Year" the elder deep in the bottom of the sea, every New Years eve just climbed out, swallowed cattle damage lives. Therefore, every New Years eve that day, the people of CunCunZhaiZhai could flee to the mountains, to escape the "year" animal damage. One NianChuXi, from the village outside a begging the old man. Folks a hurried panic scene, only the east village, an old woman gave the old man some food, and urged him quickly up the hill avoid "year" beast, the old man stroked his beard say with smile: "mother-in-law if let me stay overnight in the home, I must have" years "beast." Old woman continue to persuasion, begging the old man smiling without a word. At midnight, "nian" beast into the village. It found the village atmosphere unlike previous years, village east wifes husbands family, the door stick red paper, candle lit the room. "Year" beast was a shake, long a sound. Nearly the door, hospital suddenly spread "banging spluttered" Fried sound, "nian" shuddered, again dare not go up. Originally, "year" the most afraid of red, fire and exploding. At this time, her mother-in-laws door open and saw hospital a red-robed man laughed. "Year" frightened to disgrace, mess up. The next day is the first day, the people of refuge back very surprised to see the village safe. At this point, the old woman was suddenly enlighted, quickly spoke to the fellow villagers begging the old mans promise. This matter quickly spread around the village, people know driven "years" beast approach. (the legend of hakka) from then on, every year New Years eve, families paste red couplets, firecrackers; Household candle lit, keeping stay by age. Beginning in the early morning, still walk close bunch of congratulate friends say hello. This custom spread more widely, Chinese the most solemn of the folk traditional festival.

春节，中国人最重要的节日。是中国最盛大、最热闹、最重要的一个古老传统节日，也是中国人所独有的节日。

节，是农历的岁首，春节的另一名称叫过年，是中国最盛大、最热闹、最重要的一个古老传统节日，也是中国人所独有的节日。是中华文明最集中的表现。自西汉以来，春节的习俗一直延续到今天。春节一般指除夕和正月初一。但在民间，传统意义上的春节是指从腊月初八的腊祭或腊月二十三或二十四的祭灶，一直到正月十五，其中以除夕和正月初一为高潮。如何过庆贺这个节日，在千百年的历史发展中，形成了一些较为固定的风俗习惯，有许多还相传至今。在春节这一传统节日期间，我国的汉族和大多数少数民族都有要举行各种庆祝活动，这些活动大多以祭祀神佛、祭奠祖先、除旧布新、迎禧接福、祈求丰年为主要内容。活动形式丰富多彩，带有浓郁的民族特色。2006年5月20日，“春节”民俗经国务院批准列入第一批国家级非物质文化遗产名录。

春节的来历有一种传说，中国古时候有一种叫“年”的怪兽，头长触角，凶猛异常。“年”长年深居海底，每到除夕才爬上岸，吞食牲畜伤害人命。因此，每到除夕这天，村村寨寨的人们扶老携幼逃往深山，以躲避“年”兽的伤害。有一年除夕，从村外来了个乞讨的老人。乡亲们一片匆忙恐慌景象，只有村东头一位老婆婆给了老人些食物，并劝他快上山躲避“年”兽，那老人捋髯笑道：“婆婆若让我在家呆一夜，我一定把‘年’兽撵走。”老婆婆仍然继续劝说，乞讨老人笑而不语。 半夜时分，“年”兽闯进村。它发现村里气氛与往年不同：村东头老婆婆家，门贴大红纸，屋内烛火通明。“年”兽浑身一抖，怪叫了一声。将近门口时，院内突然传来“砰砰啪啪”的炸响声，“年”浑身战栗，再不敢往前凑了。原来，“年”最怕红色、火光和炸响。这时，婆婆的家门大开，只见院内一位身披红袍的老人在哈哈大笑。“年”大惊失色，狼狈逃蹿了。第二天是正月初一，避难回来的人们见村里安然无恙十分惊奇。这时，老婆婆才恍然大悟，赶忙向乡亲们述说了乞讨老人的许诺。这件事很快在周围村里传开了，人们都知道了驱赶“年”兽的办法。(客家人的传说)从此每年除夕，家家贴红对联、燃放爆竹;户户烛火通明、守更待岁。初一一大早，还要走亲串友道喜问好。这风俗越传越广，成了中国民间最隆重的传统节日。

the + 形容词最高级 + n. + (that) + S(主语) + have ever seen / known / heard / had / read, etc

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.(海伦是我见过的最美丽的女孩。)

Nothing is + 形容词比较级 + than to + V(谓语)

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education. (没有比接受教育更重要的事。)

S cannot emphasize the importance of sth. too much：再怎么强调……的重要性也不为过。

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much. (我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。)

There is no doubt + that + 句子：毫无疑问，……

例句：There is no doubt that the economy is recovering. (毫无疑问，经济已经逐渐复苏。)

It pays to + V + O(宾语)：……是值得的。

例句：It pays to help others. (帮助别人是值得的。)

An advantage of + 名词结构+ is that + 句子：……的优点是……

例句：An advantage of using solar energy is that it wont create any pollution.(使用太阳能的优点是它不会产生任何污染。)

There is no denying that + 句子：不可否认……

例句：There is no denying that the quality of our life has gone from good to better. (不可否认，我们的生活质量日益改善。)

On no account can we + V：我们绝对不能……

例句：On no account can we ignore the value of knowledge. (我们绝不能无视知识的价值。)

It is universally acknowledged that + 句子：全世界都知道……

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable[不可或缺的] to us. (全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。)

The reason why + 句子 + is that + 句子：……的原因是……

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air. (我们必须种树的原因是它们能给我们提供新鲜空气。)

be closely related to sth.：与……息息相关

例句：Taking exercise is closely related to health. (做运动与健康息息相关。)

So + 形容词 + be + S + that + 句子：如此……以致于……

例句：So precious is time that we cant afford to waste it. (时间是如此珍贵，它经不起我们浪费。)

It is time + S + 动词过去式：该是……的时候了。

例句：It is time the authorities concerned took proper steps to solve the traffic problems. (有关当局是时候采取适当措施解决交通问题了。)

S + enable + O + to + V：……使……能够……

例句：Listening to music enables us to feel relaxed. (听音乐使我们获得放松。)

be + forced / obliged / compelled + to + V：不得不……

例句：Since the examination is around the corner, I am compelled to give up doing sports. (既然考试迫在眉睫，我不得不放弃做运动。)

a. + as + S + be, S + V + O：虽然……， 但是……

例句：Rich as our country is, the quality of our life is by no means satisfactory. (虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活质量仍差强人意。)

It is conceivable / obvious / apparent that + 句子：可想而知/明显/显然……

例句：It is apparent that knowledge plays an important role in our life. (显然，知识在我们人生中扮演着重要角色。)

The + 形容词比较级 + S + V, the + 形容词比较级 + S + V：……愈……，……愈……

例句：The harder you work, the more progress you make. (愈努力，愈进步。)

Since + S + 动词过去式，S + 现在完成式： 自从……，……一直……

例句：Since he went to senior high school, he has worked very hard. (自从上了高中，他一直很用功。)

By + V-ing, S can V：通过……，……能够……

例句：By taking exercise, we can always stay healthy. (通过做运动，我们能够保持健康。)

be based on sth.：以.……为基础

例句：Progress in society is based on harmony. (社会的进步是以和谐为基础的。)

That is the reason why +句子：那就是……的原因

例句：Summer is sultry[闷热的]. That is the reason why I dont like it. (夏天很闷热。那就是我不喜欢它的原因。)

There is no one but + V + O：没有人不……

例句：There is no one but longs to go to college. (没有人不渴望上大学。)

Due to / Owing to / Thanks to + sth. / V-ing：因为/ 多亏……

例句：Thanks to his encouragement, I finally realized my dream. (因为他的鼓励，我终于实现了梦想。)

For the past + 时间, S + 现在完成式： 过去的……来，……一直……

例句：For the past two years, I have been busy preparing for the examination. (过去两年来，我一直忙着准备考试。)

What a + a. + n. + S + V!= How + a. + a + n. + V!：多么……!

例句：What an important thing it is to keep our promise! / How important a thing it is to keep our promise! (遵守诺言是多么重要的事!)

get into the habit of + V-ing = make it a rule to + V：养成……的习惯

例句：We should get into the habit of

keeping good hours. (我们应该养成早睡早起的习惯。) leave much to be desired：令人不满意

例句：The condition of our traffic leaves much to be desired. (我们的交通状况令人不太满意。)

Those who + V + O：那些……的人

例句：Those who violate traffic regulations should be punished. (违反交通规定的人应该受处罚。)

have a great influence on sth.：对……有很大影响

例句：Smoking has a great influence on our health. (抽烟对我们的健康有很大影响。)

spare no effort to + V：不遗余力地……

例句：We should spare no effort to beautify our environment. (我们应该不遗余力地美化我们的环境。)

do good / harm to sth.：对……有益/有害

例句：Reading does good to our mind.(读书对心灵有益。)

pose a great threat to sth.：对……造成很大威胁

例句：Pollution poses a great threat to our existence. (污染对我们的生存造成很大威胁。)

bring home to + S + O：让……明白……

例句：We should bring home to people the value of working hard. (我们应该让人们明白努力的价值。)

do ones utmost to + V = do ones best to + V：尽全力去……

例句：We should do our utmost to achieve our goal in life. (我们应尽全力去达成我们的人生目标。)

掌握应用文写作语言的特点，即语言的信实性、针对性、规范化和专门化，小编收集了应用文的写作基础知识，欢迎阅读。

一、语言的特点

掌握应用文写作语言的特点，即语言的信实性、针对性、规范化和专门化

作者运用语言的能力，主要体现在对各种文体语言的敏感和自觉把握、开拓上。应用文因其要交流业务、传递信息、宣传政策、一探讨问题，甚至需录存凭证的实用要求，其语言必然具有一些自身的特点：

1、信实性

要使各种信息得到读者的信任，其语言就应信实可靠，去伪存真，弃浮留实，不言过其实，在真实中获得自己的生命。要做到语言的信实必须做到以下几点：

(1)要掌握表述的分寸。在当用与不当用、偏高与偏低、偏大与偏小之间加以区分;事物的范围、性质要描述和归纳得恰如其分。要求表述的含义清楚，词语的内涵、外延明确，一切会导致歧义、多义和似是而非的象征、隐喻等等都应在排除之列，以免引起误解而致误导。如"成绩"与"成就"之分，"错误"与"缺点"之分，"大多数"与"绝大多数"的不同，"部分"与"大部分"的界限。

(2)表现要诚达。"诚"，就是要求有实实在在的内容，不能空话连篇，言之无物;不能装腔作势，哗众取宠;"达"，就是要求语言能原原本本地把内容表达清楚，忌浮言、假话。如介绍商品，性质、功能、售后服务、价格等都须实事求是，不吹嘘、不护短，才能在感情上取得顾客的信任。那些"王婆卖瓜，自卖自夸"的花言巧语，那种动辄"领导世界新潮流"、"誉满全球"的陈词滥调只会失信于读者，最终削弱商品的竞争力。

(3)数字要精确，字词运用要恰当。借助极富科学性和说服力的数字，发现问题、分析问题、解决问题。但应慎重，不能混用。如数字发生变化时表达要清楚，"增加了多少"与"增加到多少"并不一样;有关数字的词语要概念明确，比如"以上"、"以下"、"不足"、"超过"、"小于"、"大于"的用法不应给读者造成疑窦，如不要在"100公斤以上的"、"100公斤以下的"之后给读者留下"100公斤的"该怎么办的问号。

2、针对性

即看对象说话。许多应用文的语言，受客观环境和政策法规的制约，都应看准表述对象，因人、因事、因时、因地而异，不可千篇一律。给领导看的，要求语言庄重，文字简约;给群众看的，则要求深入浅出，语言通俗;介绍一件商品，要注意具体的对象、环境、内容和要求，做到随机应变，以获得最佳的传播效果。针对性强，就能使文章有的放矢，有助于解决问题。

3、规范化和专门化

应用写作的语言不同于其他写作，以书面语言为主。尤其在某些文种中，如命令等，只能用书面语言而不能掺杂其他语体，并大量使用规范化、专门化的词语。体现出以下特点：

(1)具有词语的稳定性与选择性的统一。所谓词语的稳定性，是指某些固定的词语相对稳定地使用于某些应用文。如介绍信的开头总以"兹有"开启下文，许多公文的结尾都以"特此"收束全文。所谓词语的选择性大多数的应用文都有一套比较固定的规范性习惯用语，供人们在写作时选用。这些习惯用语多用于应用文的标题、开头、引文、过渡与结尾处。例如：开头用语中的鉴于、为、为了、由于、遵照、按照、根据、随着、兹有、奉、近来等;结尾用语中的本、为荷、为要、为盼、此令、此复、希即遵照执行、希酌情办理、现予公布。特此函达、以上报告，请审核、当否，请批示、以上妥否，请指示等。

(2)具有句法的稳定性和灵活性的统一。所谓句法的稳定性，是指某些类型的句子在应用文中占有很大的分量。如总结中要汇报情况，请示时要阐述原因，求职信中要作自我介绍等，主要使用陈述句。应用文在有所陈述的基础上，往往要提要求，无论是上级对下级，还是下级对上级。如"以上通知，请遵照执行"，"以上请求，望领导批准为荷"等等。所谓句法的灵活性，是指在稳定性的基础上，适当地求新、求变。灵活恰当地选用句式，可使行文变化多姿，从而增强文章语言的表达效果，增强文章的外在美。例如，对事物下定义时宜用长单句、判断句;叙述事物时宜用短句;发号施令时宜用短句、单句、主动句。总之，选用什么样的句式，要根据表述内容灵活掌握。

(3)力求简洁，具有庄重感。应用文中，经常使用一些文言词语，如常用的有"经、业经、业已、兹、兹有、兹将、特、者、荷、取、于、而、则、为、为此、与之、依、逾、至、其、亦、以、尚、须、未、予、示、之……"，可增强文章的庄重感。

(4)用图式替代语言文字。图式包括图、画、符号、照片、表格、公式等。在应用文特别是科技应用文中大量使用，成为一种常见的辅助书面语言，从而形成应用文语言的又一大特色。

二、语言运用的要求

掌握语言运用的基本要求，即：语言要准确清晰、简洁明了、平实自然、得体妥帖、生动具体

1、准确清晰

准确，即用最恰当的词语和句子如实反映客观事物，表达作者思想。清晰，是指表达时要条理清楚，意思明白。具体应做到：

(1)用词造句要准确。用词准确是指能把握词语遣用的分寸感和合适度。应精选中心词，用准修饰语。能仔细辨析同义词、近义词的用法，对词义轻重。范围宽窄、程度深浅、感情褒贬、语体雅俗、词性差别等都能烂熟于心、姻熟于手。如："分散"和"涣散"都有"不集中"的意思，"涣散"是具有贬义性质的形容词;"分散"是具有中间性质的动词。"士气涣散"就准确，"士气分散"就不准确。另外，应用文常用数字说明问题，揭示事物之间的数量关系，所以数字运用要准确无误。

(2)用词造句要通顺。指合乎语法，合乎逻辑。通顺也是实现语言准确的保证。

(3)要注意语意鲜明。有时由于特殊需要，还必须使用一些模糊语言，即用一些在外延上不确定、表意比较含糊，以及在运用上具有弹性的词语，如"近年来"、"各地"、"时有"、"大多数"。"有关部门"、"条件许可时"等。该类词语使用恰当，不仅能增加行文的灵活性，而且有助于准确地表达意思，但应谨慎使用。

2、简洁明了

(1)简洁。所谓简洁，就是用较少的文字清楚表达较多、较丰富的内容。要抓住问题的关键，把话说到点子上。主要应做好以下四点：

一要善于观察事物，深刻理解事物，明确认识写作对象，把握住问题的关键。

二要反复锤炼，提高概括能力，杜绝堆砌修饰语现象;适当使用缩略语，如"五讲四美"等。

三要删除一切套话、空话、意思重复的话，向繁冗开刀。克服繁琐冗长的毛病是语言简洁的前提。

四要适当地采用文言词语及短语。文言词语(包括成语、典故)行文简练，富有表现力，写作时适当采用，言简意赅。然而，"简"要得当，"简"得让人不明白或产生歧义也不行。绝不能为简而生造词语。乱缩略、滥用文言以及一概排斥某些行文必需的程式化语句。(2)明了。所谓明了，就是指明明白白、清清楚楚，一是一，二是二。要做到明了，一是要考虑周到，言尽意止;二是要注意用词通俗，不用生僻晦涩的字句;三是在运用数字的时候，只须写出计算的结果，而不须表述具体的计算过程。

3、平实自然

应用文用语应平易通俗，浅显流畅。说明事实、讲清道理即可。不搞"曲笔"，不作夸饰，不堆砌辞藻，不追求华丽，不矫揉造作，不用生僻词语，以明白、实在、自然为上。

4、得体妥帖

(1)得体。应用文实用性强，讲究得体。主要应做到以下三点：

一是要适合特定的文体。按文体要求遣词造句，用词、语气、语体风格应符合特定的要求。保持该文体的语言特色和语言风格。如公文宜庄重，调查报告须平实，学术论文应严谨，祝谢哀问需较浓的感情色彩，广告就常用模糊的语言，使用说明书则需具体实在，商业交际文书语言要委婉，合同书的语言则要精确，颁布政策法令应庄重严肃，报喜祝捷要热烈欢快，提出申请该委婉平和，分析问题须有理有据。

二是语言适用于所写的应用文体的需要，做到需要文雅时，决不粗俗;需要委婉时，决不直露;需要明确时，决不含糊;需要模糊时，决不精确。

三是要考虑作者自己的身份，阅读的对象，约稿的单位，写作的目的，甚至还要考虑到与客观环境的和谐一致、恰到好处。比如需要登报或张贴的，语言要通俗易懂;需要宣读或广播的，语言应简明流畅，便于朗读;书信的写作，要根据远近亲疏、尊卑长幼的关系使用相应的语言;公文的写作要根据不同的文种和行文关系而使用相应的语言，否则就不得体。(2)妥贴。语言的妥帖则是指语言要合乎语法的一般规范。

5、生动具体

生动，即言词形象、逼真、有活力，能吸引人。应用文中有些文种的语言也是要求生动的，如讲话稿、调查报告、总结等。选择词语(尤其是动词的运用)时要精心，恰当、传神地运用一些修辞手法，如引用、比喻、拟人、排比等。如某篇调查报告中写当今择偶观时说："婚姻的含金量增大了。"就十分传神。语言具体，可使文章内容有血有肉，说理深刻有力。其关键在于对事物的仔细观察和深入了解。

《电影剧本写作基础》的作者是美国的悉德·菲尔德(Sid Field)，这本书是电影编剧专业的必读教材，自1982年首版以来已被译成二十四种语言，为全球超过四百所大学所选用，具有极高的可读性和实用性。新版本中作者修订了大量内容，增加了一批更为当代观众所熟知且更风格化的片例。

以下是全书内容：

第一章 电影剧本是什么?

电影是一种视觉媒介，它把一个基本的故事线戏剧化了。

一部电影剧本就是一个由画面讲述出来的故事。它象名词(noun)──指的是一个人或几个人，在一个地方或几个地方，去干他或她的事情。所有的电影剧本都贯彻执行这一基本前提。一部故事片是一个视觉媒介，它是把一条基本的故事线加以戏剧化。如同所有的故事一样，它有一个明确的开端、中段和结尾。

第一幕，或称开端 一个标准电影剧本的篇幅大约有120页，或长两个小时。不论你的剧本全用对话、全用描写，或两者兼有之，均可按一分钟一页来计算。

如果你去看电影，你时常会自觉或不自觉地做出判断──你是否喜爱这部影片。今后看电影时，请注意一下，你需要多长时间做出你是否喜爱这部影片的决定。一般大约十分钟左右。也就相当于你写的电影剧本的头十页。你应该及时地抓住你的读者。

第二幕，或称对抗 第二幕是你故事的主体部分。一般是在剧本的第30页至90页。它之所以称为电影剧本的对抗部分，是因为一切戏剧的基础都是冲突(conflict)。一旦你给自己的人物规定出需求(need)，亦即在剧本中他想要达到什么目的，他的目标是什么，你就可以为这一需求设置障碍(obstacles)，这样就产生了冲突。

第三幕，或称结局 第三幕通常发生在第90页至第120页之间，是故事的结局。故事是如何结束的?主人公怎么样了?他是活着还是死了?他是成功还是失败了?等等。你的故事需要有一个有力的结尾，以便使人理解并求得完整。

戏剧性结构可以被规定为：一系列互为关联的事情、情节或事件按线性安排最后导致一个戏剧性的结局。

第二章 主题

记住一个电影剧本就象名词──指的是某一个人在某一个地方去干他(她)的事情。这个人就是主人公，而干他(她)的事情就是动作(action)。当我们谈论电影剧本的主题时，我们实际谈的是剧本中的动作和人物。

动作就是发生了什么事情，而人物，就是遇到这件事情的人。每个电影剧本都把动作和人物加以戏剧化了。

每个电影剧本都有个主题。

剧作家在决定如何把故事戏剧化时，常常要进行选择和履行责任。

你的主题会找到你的，只要你设法去发现它。

从寻找一个动作和一个人物开始做起!

下一步是扩展你的主题。赋予剧本中的动作以血肉，把焦点集中在剧中人物身上，这样就扩展了故事线和突出了细节。

这条规则值得再重复一遍：你知道的越多，你所能传达的也越多。

调查研究工作是电影剧本写作的具体要素。

动笔时，先问一下自己要写的是什么故事。

当你一旦决定想要写哪一种动作之后，就可以进而考虑剧中人物了。首先，要明确你的人物的需求(need)。一切戏剧都是冲突。如果你已经清楚自己人物的需求，那就可以设置达到这一需求而要克服的种种障碍。他如何克服这些障碍就成了你的故事本身。冲突、斗争、克服障碍这就是一切戏剧的基本成分。喜剧，亦是如此。剧作家的责任就是创造足够的冲突去使你的观众或读者发生兴趣。故事始终要不断向前发展，直至它的解决。上述就是你对主题应该了解的一切。如果你已经清楚了自己电影剧本中的动作和人物，你就可以为你的人物规定需要，然后为实现这一需求设置种种障碍。

没有冲突就没有戏剧。没有需求，就没有人物。没有人物也就没有动作。

一个人的行为而不是他的言谈，表明了他是一个什么样的人。当你着手探索主题时，你会发现你剧本中的一切事情都是互为关联的。没有一件事是偶然纳入的，或仅因为它机智可爱而被纳入的。莎土比亚有句名言：“即便一只麻雀的死，亦有特殊的天意。”而宇宙的自然法则是：每一个作用力都有一个力量相等方向相反的反作用力。这一法则也适用于你的故事。这就是你电影剧本的主题。

要了解你的主题!

第三章 人物

人物是你电影剧本的根本基础，它是你故事的心脏、灵魂和神经系统。在动笔之前，你必须了解你的人物。

首先，确定你的主要人物。然后，把他(她)生活的内容分成两个基本范畴：内在的生活与外在的生活。

要从内在的生活开始。

写作要具备不断向自己提出问题并且找到答案的能力。这就是为什么我把发展人物称之为创造性的研究工作。

人物的外在的部分发生在电影剧本的开始到最后的淡出之间。首先，要逐个分析他们生活的各种因素或各个组成部分。你应该通过人物与其他人或事件的关系来创造你的人物。所有的戏剧性人物都在三个方面相互作用：

1)在争取他们的戏剧性需求过程中所经历的冲突。

2)他们与其他人物之间的相互作用，是敌对的、友好的，抑或是冷漠的。请记住：戏剧就是冲突。法国著名的电影导演让·雷诺阿(Jean Renoir)曾跟我说过:描写一个混蛋比描写一个好小伙子更有戏剧性效果。

3)他们内在的相互作用。

把你的人物的生活分为三个基本组成部分——职业的(Professional)生活部分，个人的(Personal)生活部分，私生活(Private)的部分。

人物的实质是动作。你的人物实际上是他所做的事。电影是一种视觉媒介，剧作家的责任就是选择一个视觉形象或画面，用电影化的方式使他的人物戏剧化。

对话是人物的一种机能。在你第一稿的前六十页之中会到处出现别扭的对白，这没关系。别担心这些，写到后六十页它就会流畅并起作用了。你写得越多，它就变得越容易。这时，你可以再回来把你电影剧本中前半部分的对话修改顺畅。

对话是和你人物的需求、他的希望与梦想相互联系的。对话必须把你故事的信息或事实传达给观众。它必须推动故事向前发展。它必须提示人物。对话必须展现人物之间和人物内部的矛盾冲突，以及展现人物的感情状况和性格的独特之处。对话来自于人物。

第四章 构成人物

你如何给你的人物“注入生命”?如何去构成你的人物呢?

关键的词是“过程”。需要一种途径去实现它。

首先，要创作人物的来龙去脉(context)。然后把内容注入其中。确定人物的需求。

人物就是观点——即我们看待世界的方式。这是一种来龙去脉。

我们都具有某种观点——要保证你的人物具有个人的和独特的观点。你创造了来龙去脉，内容就随之而来了。

人物还是一种态度。这也是一种来龙去脉，是展现人物观点的一种感情和行动的方式。

你越能清楚地确定人物的需求，就越容易给这些需求制造障碍。这样就产生了冲突。这有助于你创作一条紧张而富于戏剧性的故事线索。这在喜剧中也是一条卓有成效的规律。

确定人物的需求，然后针对这一需求制造障碍。你对你的人物知道得越多，在故事结构中创作的尺度就越宽。

人物还是个性。每个人物从视觉上都显示出一种个性。

人物还是行为。人物的实质就是动作——什么样的人干什么事。行为是动作。行为向你揭示很多东西。

人物还是我所谓的启示。在故事进程中我们了解到人物的一些事情。

动作即是人物!一个人的所为，而不是他的言谈，表明他是一个什么样的人。

作家常常在一个作品接近完成时，坚持写下去而没有写完。

只是别指望你的人物从第一页就开始跟你讲话。这样是行不通的。如果你作了创造性的研究工作，并熟知你的人物，那么你就会体验到某些阻力，然后才能有所突破，和你的人物发生接触。你的全部工作、研究、准备工作和思考时间的最后结果将是那些真实、生动、可信的人物——真实环境中的真实人物。这是我们共同的目的。

第五章 创造人物

写剧本有两种办法。一种是先有了想法，然后按照这种想法去创造人物。写剧本的另一种办法是创作一个人物;从人物身上会产生出需求、动作和故事。

要记住，剧本的主题是动作和人物。我们已经有了人物了，现在该去找动作了。这是一个漫无目的的创作过程。我们提出一些想法，做出修改，重新安排，也犯错误。我刚说了一件事，接着又反驳了自己。不要着急。我们在寻找一个特定的结果——一个故事。我们必须使自己“找到”它。

要记住，这是一个创作过程，混乱和自相矛盾是在所难免的。

情节点。要记住，它必须是一个能“钩”住动作转向另一方向的事变或事件。

第六章 结尾与开端

方向!──对，正是它!你的故事是从A向前发展到Z;从建置发展到结局。请记住，电影剧本结构的定义是：一系列互为关联的事情、情节和事件按线性安排，最后导致戏剧性的结局。这就意味着你的故事是从开端向前发展到结尾。你应该用10页(10分钟)向你的观众或读者介绍三件事：⒈谁是你的主要人物?⒉戏剧性的前提是什么──亦即故事讲的是什么?⒊戏剧性情境是什么──意即围绕你故事的戏剧性情况是什么?

很多人不相信，动笔写剧本前需要一个结尾!我听到多少次论证、争论等等。

当你开始动笔时，你必须知道的第一件事就是结尾。

你的故事总要向前发展──它沿着一条途径、一个方向、一条发展线，从开端到结尾。方向就是一条发展线，一路上遇到一些事情的途径。知道你的结尾。你不必知道具体的细节，但是你必须知道结尾发生了什么事。

你的故事就象是一次旅行，结尾就是目的地。二者是联成一体的。凯特·斯蒂汶斯在他的歌《就座》中概括了这一点：“生活就象多重门的迷宫。扇扇门都得往里推才打得开。伙计，你就只管推门而进，不论你怎样走，你都可能绕回到开始的地方。”

中国有句成语：“千里之行，始于足下。”

结尾与开端是相互联结的，这一原则可适用于电影剧本。

所以一个结尾始终是一个开端，而另一个开端也就是另一个结尾。如同生活一样，电影剧本中的每一件事都是相互关联的。

结尾和开端犹如一枚银币的两面。一定要仔细地选择，从而戏剧化地构成你的结尾。

当你知道了你的结尾.你可以有效地选择你的开端。

如果你已经决定了结尾，你可以选择一个事情或事件能引导到影片结尾。

一种类型的开端，可以是视觉感染力很强、很令人兴奋的进程，它能一下子抓住观众;另一种类型的开端，可以以一种速度极快的解说式的镜头去建置剧中的人物。你的故事决定了你去选择哪种类型的开端。

在什么地方出现片头字幕，这是个由电影片决定，不是由你剧作者决定的事。决定在什么地方出现字幕是一部电影制片时最后的事情，是由电影剪缉和导演来决定的。

你的电影剧本一开始的前十页是最为重要的。在这十页之内，一个读者将要知道你的故事是否引人入胜，它是不是开始布局了。这正是读者的工作。

对卖给好莱坞的电影剧本设有一个专门阅读剧本的人(reader)。在好莱坞那里，没有人读剧本，制片人不读，只有专门阅读剧本的人读。

对编剧人员来说，看电影是最重要的事情。去看各种各样的电影：好的影片、坏的影片、外国影片、老影片和新影片等等。你从看的每一部影片中都能获得经验，如果认真地看，它就会帮助你逐渐地对电影剧本有越来越深入的了解。看一部影片应该象参加一次工作会议，要去谈，去讨论它，并且看看它是否和哪个示例相吻合。

对一部结构很好的影片说来，结尾和开端是最重要的。所以，写电影剧本的开端的最好方法是什么?那就是：要清楚知道你的结尾!

第七章 建置

电影剧本中的一切都是互相夫联的，所以从一开始就要介绍你故事的组成部分，这一点是首要的。你有十页的篇幅去抓住或钩住你的读者，这样一来，你就必须立刻建置你的故事。

你必须以视觉的方式把故事中的信息建置起来。读者必须知道：谁是主人公，故事的戏剧前提是什么——也就是故事要讲的是什么，以及戏剧性的情境——围绕动作的境况。

第八章 段落

“协同动力学”(synergy)是对系统的研究，它研究系统作为整体而独立于它的各个工作部分时发生作用的情况。

电影剧本是由一系列的元素组成的，可以把它比作一个“系统”，即很多互相关联的独立部分有秩序地加以安排成一个统一体或整体。

电影剧本象一个系统，它由若干特定的部分组成，这些部分是由动作、人物和戏剧前提联系和统一起来的。我们是通过它能不能“发挥作用”或作用发挥到什么程度来对它加以衡量或评价的。

一个电影剧本做为一个“系统”，是由结尾、开端、情节点、镜头与特技效果、场面以及段落构成的。这些故事的诸元素由动作和人物的戏剧性推动力统一在一起，按照特殊的方式加以安排，然后从视觉上展示出来，从而创造一个整体，就是众所周知的“电影剧本”──用画面叙述的故事。

从我的角度来说，段落(scquence)①是电影剧本最重要的组成部分。它是电影剧本的骨架或脊梁骨;它把所有的东西串在一起。

段落就是：用单一的思想把一系列场面联结在一起。它是统一在单一思想下的一个单元或一个戏剧性动作的单位。

段落是电影剧本的骨架，因为它把一切都安排妥贴。你可以直接地把一些场面“串”起来或“挂”起来，从而创造成一大段戏剧性动作。

一个段落也正是这样：通过单一的思想把一系列场面联系在一起。

每一段落都有明确的开端、中段和结尾。

用单一的思想把一系列场面连结或联系在一起，并有明确的开端、中段和结尾，它就是电影剧本的一个缩影，就好比一个单细胞亦包含着一个宇宙的基本特点一样。

它是理解如何写电影剧本的重要的概念。它是电影剧本的组织框架，是形式，是基础，是蓝图。

开端，中段，结尾。

第九章 情节点

写作最困难的事是知道要写什么。当你写一个电影剧本时，你必须要知道你要写什么;你必须有一个方向──一条导致解决、结尾的发展线。如果你不这样做，那就麻烦了。那你很容易就会迷失在自己的创作的迷宫之中。

情节点，它是一个事件，它“钩住”动作，并且把它转向另一方向。

它把故事推向前进。

它们是你故事线上的锚。在你开始动笔之前，你需要知道四件事：结尾、开端、第一幕结尾的情节点，以及第二幕结尾的情节点。

掌握情节点的知识，是写电影剧本的最基本要求。要注意情节点，你们在看电影时要找出它们来，读电影剧本时要讨论它们。

每部电影都有情节点。

当你看一部影片时，确定它的情节点。

了解和掌握关于情节点，是电影剧本写作的基本要求。每一幕结尾的情节点是戏剧动作的环节;它们把一切都串在一起。它们是每一幕的路标、目的地、目标或指定点——是戏剧性动作的链条中的链环。

第十章 场面

场面是你剧本中最最重要的因素。在场面里发生某件事情──发生某些特殊的事。它是一个动作的特殊单位──是你讲故事的地方。

良好的场面产生良好的电影。当你想到一部好电影时，你记得的是场面,而不是整部影片。

你在纸上表现场面的方式最终影响着整个剧本。剧本是一个阅读的经验。

场面的目的是推动故事前进。

场面根据你的需要可长可短。

每个场面都具有两样东西──地点和时间。

场面的变换在剧本的发展中是极其重要的。一切都发生在场面中──是你用活动影像来讲故事的地方。

每个场面至少向读者或观众揭示必要的故事信息的一个因素。它很少提供更多的因素。观众接受的信息是场而的核心或目的。

一般来说，有两类场面：一类是，这里发生了某些视觉性的事情，另一类是人们之间的对话场面。大多数场面是两者的结合。

你要找出场面内的成分和元素。

当你写一个场面时，设法寻找一种与场面“反衬”的戏剧化方法。

你能驾驭你的故事，而不是让故事驾驭你。作为一名作家，你必须在场面的结构和表现中进行选择和承担责任。

寻找冲突，制造困难，尽可能多的困难。这能增加紧张性。

喜剧就是要创造一个情境，然后让人物对这个情境或相互之间做出动作和反动作。在喜剧中，你不能让你的人物故意去逗笑。他们必须相信自己所做的事，否则就会变得牵强和造作，因此也就不可笑了。

找到场面内的成分从而使场面运转起来。

一个场面很少是全部表现出来的。更经常的是表现整体中的片断。

在场面中某一特殊动作行将结束之际才进入。

第十一章 构筑剧本

每一幕都是戏剧性动作的一个单元、或组块。

在每一幕中，你都是从一幕的开端开始向这一幕结尾的情节点发展。这意味着，每一幕都有一个方向，一条从开端到情节点的发展线。而第一幕与第二幕的结尾的那两个情节点是你的目的地;它们就是你在构筑和结构你的电影剧本时，将要去的地方。

你的故事决定你需要用多少卡片。

用卡片是极好的方法。你可以用各种方式去安排场面，和重新安排，增加几张，去掉几张。它是简单、方便而有效的方法，它可以使你以最大的灵活性去建设电影剧本。

牛顿的运动第三定律吧：“对于每一个作用力，都有一个力量相等和方向相反的反作用力。”这条原则在构筑电影剧本中也起作用。

动作──反动作，这是宇宙的法则。在电影剧本之中，如果你的人物作出动作，而别人或其它物件作出的反动作是能引起你的人物再作出一个反动作。这样他一般就创作一个新的动作，而这又引起另一个反动作。

人物作出动作，有人做出反动作，动作──反动作，反动作──动作，使你的故事朝着每一幕结尾的情节点发展。

很多新手或者没有经验的剧作家总是让主人公遇到什么事，总是让他们对他们的环境作出反动作，而不是根据他们的戏剧性需求去动作。人物的实质是动作;你的人物必须采取动作，而不是反动作。

第十二章 写电影剧本

写作的最难之处在于知道要写什么。

要弄清楚这是否是你最佳的工作时间。

写作是件日复一日的差事。你要逐个镜头、逐个场景、逐页、逐日地写你的电影剧本。给自己定下目标。一天写三页是合理的和切实可行的，这大约是一天近一千字。如果你的电影剧本有120页的篇幅，每天三页、一星期工作五天。那么，完成第一稿需要多少时日呢?四十个工作日。

当你专心写作时，虽然你在外部很接近你所爱的人们，但你的思想和注意力是在千里之外了。

当你需要些时间来写电影剧本时，不必感到“内疚”。

制定个写作日程表：上午10点30分至12点，或是晚上8点至10点，或者晚9时至深夜。有了日程表,遵守纪律的“问题”就容易掌握了。

制定好写作日程表之后，你就可以工作了，在一个美好的日子里坐下来着手动笔。

出现的第一件事是什么呢?

阻力!不错，正是它。

写作是一个体验的过程，是一个学习的过程，它需要写作的技巧与协调的能力，就象学骑自行车、游泳、舞蹈或打网球一样。

当你真坐下来写的时候，又蹦出个另一个“新”的念头，如此反复不已。它是个阻力，一种思想上的开小差，一种逃避写作的方式。

我们全都是这样的。在编造出各种理由和借口不去写作这方面，我们是大师。这是创作过程中的“障碍”。

写作是日复一日的劳动，一天要两、三个小时，一星期三、四天，一天三页，一星期要写10页。一个镜头接一个镜头，一个场面接一个场面，一页接一页，一个段落接一个段落，一幕接一幕地写下去。

在写电影剧本初稿时，你要经历三个阶段。

第一阶段，是把字“写在纸上”的阶段。这时你把一切都写下来。

第二阶段。即对你所写的东西作一次冷静、严厉而客观的检查。这是电影剧本写作中的最机械、最没有灵气的阶段。

第三阶段。在这个阶段你要检查一遍你所写的东西，真正把故事写出来。你要进行加工，突出重点，进行润色，或重写一些，让它更精炼一些，使它活起来。

写电影剧本，你必须学会忍痛割爱。

坚持写，日复一日，一页复一页地写。写得越多，就越感到容易。当你几乎要完成时，也许在最后的10页—15页，你会发现你在“拖拉”。你也许会用四天时间才写一个场面，或一页稿纸，并且感到疲倦和无精打采。这是一种自然现象：你就是不想结束，不想完成它。

当它结束后，你会体验到种种情绪反应。首先，是满意和松了一口气。几天之后，你会感到消沉、压抑，不知该怎样打发时间了。你可能会贪睡，浑身没有劲儿。我把这称之为：“产后郁闷”时期。这就象生孩子一样，你花费相当长的时间致力于某件事，它成了你身体的一部分，它使你一早就醒过来，夜里睡不着，现在一切全都过去了。所以消沉和郁闷是自然的。但是，一件事情的结束总是另一件事情的开始。这不就是开端和结尾吗?

上面就是写作电影剧本的全部体验。

第十三章 剧本的形式

千万别给读稿者以口实来不读你的剧本。这就是剧本形式的问题。什么样的是专业剧本，什么样的不是。

剧本的形式是简单的。实际上它简单到大多数人都试图把它弄得复杂些。诺贝尔奖金获得者、加利福尼亚州技术研究所的物理学家理查德·费恩曼曾谈到：“自然的法则是如此简单，以至于我们必须提到科学思想的复杂性的高度之上去认识他们。”

剧作者的工作是写剧本。导演的工作是把剧本拍成影片，把纸上的字变成影片上的形象。摄影师的作用是决定场面的照明和摄影机的位置，从而以电影化的方式抓住故事。

电影是合作的媒介。人们一起工作，共同创作一部影片。

镜头就是摄影机所看到的东西。场面是由镜头组成的。是单个镜头，还是一组镜头，无论多少，还是什么样的镜头，这都无关紧要。镜头有各种各样的。

别怕犯错误。掌握它要有个过程。你写得越多就越得心应手。

从一开始就要按电影剧本的形式写。这是对你的忠告。

找出你的镜头中的主体。

术语：1、【角度对准】一个人、地点或事物(镜头的主体)。2、【主要表现】也是对人、地点、或事物。3、【另一个角度】镜头的变化。4、【更宽的角度】场面中焦点的变化。5、【新角度】另一种镜头变化，常用来“冲破纸面限制”而获得“电影化的面貌。6、【视点】一个人的视点，他看到的东西是怎样的。7、【反拍角度】视角的变化，通常与视点的镜头相反。8、【过肩镜头】通常用于视点和反拍角度镜头。一般把一个人物的肩头摆在画面的前景，他所看到的东西处在画面的后景上。画面是摄影机所看到的界限，有时称作“画框边”(frame line)。9、【运动镜头】重点在镜头的运动。10、【双人镜头】镜头的主体是两人。11、【近景】就是近：要少用，只为强调而用。12、【插入镜头】某物的近景：把不论是一份电报、报纸报道、标题、钟面、表盘或电话拨盘等镜头插入场面之中。

第十四章 改编

把一部小说、一本书、一出舞台剧或一篇文章改编成电影剧本跟创作独创的电影剧本是一样的。“进行改编”(to adapt)意味着从一种媒介改变成另一种媒介。改编(adaption)的定义是：“通过变化或调整使之更合宜或适应的一种能力”──也就是把某些事情加以变更从而在结构、功能和形式上造成变化，以便调整得更恰当。

换句话说，小说就是小说，舞台剧就是舞台剧，电影剧本就是电影剧本。把一本书改编成电影剧本，意味着把这一个(书)改变成为另一个(电影剧本)，而不是把这一个叠加在另一个之上。它不是拍成电影的小说，或者拍成电影的舞台剧。它们是两种截然不同的形式。一个是苹果，另一个是桔子。

当你改编一部小说时，你没有必要把自己仅限于忠实于原素材的地步。

T·S·艾略特有句名言:“历史不过是编造的通道。”

如果你必须增添新的场面，做就是了。如果需要的话可以加进几个事件，使得故事更加个性化，只要它们能导致准确的历史结果就行。

在电影剧本中，事实支承着故事;你甚至可以说，它们创造了这个故事。

在电影剧本写作中，你是从一般到特殊，你先找出这个故事，然后收集事实。在新闻报道写作中，你是从特殊到一般;你先收集事实，然后再找出故事。

第十五章 论合作

电影是一门合作的媒介。

电影剧作家始终在和别人合作。

剧作家们出于不同的原因而进行合作。

在合作过程中有三个基本阶段：一、建立合作的基本规则，二、写电影剧本所必须的准备工作;三、实际写作本身。这三个全是重要的。如果你决定合作，你必须睁大眼睛去这样做。

合作意味着在一起工作!

合作或任何关系的关键，就在于互通信息。你们必须相互讨论。不互通信息，就没有合作，那只能是误解和意见不一。这没有出路。

有时你不得不批评你的合作者写的东西。

“要判断别人，首先要判断自已。”你必须尊重和满怀希望地支持对方。

合作也是一次学习的经验。

合作意味着“一起工作。”

第十六章 剧本写完之后

把原稿保存起来，千万、千万不要把原稿交给任何人。

当他们读过剧本之后，倾听他们说些什么。不要为你所写的东西辩解，不要装着在洗耳恭听,而事后感到气愤或伤心，总觉得自己是对的。

向他们提出问题，追问他们。

和他们一起研究那个故事。找出他们喜欢什么，不喜欢什么，哪里打动了他们，哪里没有。

扉页就是扉页。

第十七章 作者札记

人人都是作家。

麦克唐纳公司(theMcDonaldsCo.)的海报《再接再厉》概况了它的格言：

世界上没有任何东西能代替持之以恒：才华不能代替──是常见的是失败的天才;天才也不能代替──没有成果的天才只能被当成笑料;教育也不能代替──这世界充满了受过教育的废物。只有持之以恒和决心，才能有无上的权威!

当你完成了你的电影剧本时，你已经取得了一个伟大的成就。你把一个构思，发展成一条戏剧的或喜剧的故事线，然后坐下来用几个星期或几个月把它写下来。从开始到完成，是一个满足和得到回报的体验。你做了你决心要做的事情。这是值得骄傲的!才能是天赋的，你具备它或者不具备它，但是这并不妨碍写作的体验。写作自身会给你带来报偿。要享受它。努力干吧。

导语：读后感是指读了一本书，一篇文章，一段话，几句名言，一段音乐，或一段视频后，把具体感受和得到的启示写成的文章，读后感也可以叫做读书笔记，是一种常用的应用文体，也是应用写作研究的文体之一。简单说就是看完书后的感触。那么怎样才能写好读后感呢?小编跟大家分享关于如何写到读后感的写作基础!

从结构上看，一篇读后感至少要有三个部分的内容组成：一是要介绍原作的篇名内容和特点;二是根据自己的认识对原作的内容和特点进行分析和评价，也就是概括地谈谈对作品的总体印象;三是读后的感想和体会。即一是说明的部分，二是要有根据评价作品的部分，三是有感而发，重点在“感”字上。

首要的一点是“读”。“读”是感的基础，“感”是由“读”而生。只有认真的读书，弄懂难点疑点，理清文章的思路，透彻的掌握文章的内容和要点，深刻地领会原文精神所在，结合历史的经验、当前的形势和个人的实际,才能真有所“感”。所以，要写读后感，首先要弄懂原作。

其次要认真思考。读后感的主体是“感”。要写实感，还要在读懂原作的基础上作出自己的分析和评价。分析和评价是有所“感”的酝酿、集中和演化的过程，有了这个 分析和评价，才有可能使“感”紧扣原作的主要思想和主要观点，避免脱离原作，东拉西扯，离开中心太远。

所以，写读后感就必须要边读边思考，结合历史的经验，当前的形势和自己的实际展开联想，从书中的人和事联系到自己和自己所见的人和事，那些与书中相近、相似，那些与书中相反、相对，自己赞成书中的什么，反对些什么，从而把自己的感想激发出来，并把它条理化，系统化，理论化。总之，想的深入，才能写的深刻感人。

然后，要抓住重点。读完一篇(部)作品，会有很多感想和体会，但不能把他们都写出来。读后感是写感受最深的一点，不是书评，不能全面地介绍和评价作品。因此，要认真地选择对现实生活有一定意义的、有针对性的感想，就可以避免泛泛而谈，文章散乱，漫无中心和不与事例挂钩等弊病 。

怎样才能抓住重点呢?

我们读完一部作品或一篇文章后，自然会受到感动，产生许多感想，但这许多感想是零碎的，有些是模糊的，一闪而失。要写读后感，就要善于抓住这些零碎、甚至是模糊的感想，反复想，反复作比较，找出两个比较突出的对现实有针对性的，再集中凝神的想下去，在深思的基础上加以整理。也只有这样，才能抓住具有现实意义的问题，写出真实、深刻、用于解决人们在学习上、思想上和实践上存在问题的有价值的感想来。

最后，要真实自然。就是要写自己的真情实感。自己是怎样受到感动和怎样想的，就怎样写。把自己的想法写的越具体、越真实，文章就会情真意切，生动活泼，使人受到启发。

从表现手法上看，读后感多用夹叙夹议，必要时借助抒情的方法。叙述是联系实际摆事实。议论是谈感想，讲道理。抒情是表达读后的激情。叙述的语言要概括简洁，议论要准确，抒情要集中。三者要交融一体，切忌空话、大话套话、口号。

从表现形式上看，也有两种：一种是联系实际说明道理的。这是用自己的切身体会和具体生动的事例，从理论和实践的结合上阐明一个道理的正确性，把理论具体化、形象化，使之有血有肉，有事有理，以事明理，生动活泼。另一种是从研究理论的角度出发，阐发意义。根据自己的研究和理解，阐明一个较难理解的思想观点，或估价一部作品的思想意义。它的作用是从理论上帮助读者加深对原文的理解。这一种读后感的重点仍在“感”字上，但它的理论性较强，一定要注意关照议论文论点鲜明、论据典型、中心明确突出等特点。

通报是用来表彰先进，批评错误，传达重要指标精神或情况时使用的公务文书。下面是小编为你带来的通报基础知识及写作要点，欢迎阅读。

一、通报的概念

通报适用于表彰先进、批评错误、传达重要精神或者情况。通报属下行公文。

二、通报的种类

表彰性通报。主要用来表彰先进，介绍单位或个人成功的经验、做法，以学习先进，见贤思齐，改进与推动工作。

批评性通报。用来批评后进，纠正错误，打击歪风，指出有关单位或个人存在的错误事实，提出解决办法或处理意见。

传达性通报。用于传达上级重要精神与重要情况;引起人们的警觉与注意，对当前的工作起指导作用。

三、通报的格式和写作要求

通报由标题、主送单位、正文、发文机关和日期组成。

标题 由发文机关、事由、文种或事由、文种构成。如《国务院关于一份国务院文件周转情况的通报》、《关于人大建议、政协提案办理情况的通报》等。

正文 表彰性通报和批评性通报一般分为三部分：(一)主要事实。表彰性通报要突出主要先进事迹，批评性通报要抓住主要错误事实;(二)分析指出事例的教育意义。表彰性通报，有在阐述先进事迹的基础上，提炼出主要经验、意义和值得学习与发扬的精神。批评性通报要分析错误的性质、危害，产生的根源和责任，指出应吸取的主要教训等;(三)决定要求。表彰性和批评性的通报，应写明组织结论与予以表彰或处理的决定，同时提出对表彰或批评对象与读者的希望、要求。为了防范和杜绝类似错误发生，批评性通报的结尾处，通常要有针对性地提出防范的措施或规定。传达性通报一般不写决定要求。(四)生效标识。在正文右下方标明发文机关名称，加盖印章，写明发文日期。

情况通报有两种形式：一种只对有关事实作客观叙述;另一种还对有关情况加以分析说明，有时还针对具体问题提出应采取何种对策的指导性意见。

导语：小编就高考英语广东卷写作题将由基础写作(满分15分)和任务型写作(满分25分)两节组成。为了更有效地备考基础写作题，需要搞清楚基础写作题的特点和对考生写作能力的要求。本文将探讨这两个方面的问题，并对备考给出一些建议，供考生参考。

一、基础写作题的特点

高考设置基础写作题目的目的是要检测考生最基础的书面语言表达能力，如用词的合理性、句子结构的复杂度、语法运用的正确性、信息内容的完整性、句子之间的连贯性等。因此，基础写作题与往年的书面表达依然会有很多相似点，但也会出现一些新的特点。

1. 写作题材贴近考生的学习和生活。历年来高考作文题的题材都非常贴近考生的学习和生活，如校园活动、校外见闻、交友、旅游，和考生有关的话题讨论等。可以预料明年高考写作题的题材还会在这些范围之内，并为所有所考所熟悉。

2. 写作的体裁主要是故事性描述和应用文。基础写作题的体裁主要有故事性描写和应用文写作两大类。命题形式可能是看图写故事、看图表说明、根据表格信息完成一封短信或一份通知这类的应用文等。

3. 内容呈现的方式具有半封闭性。作文试题逐步走向开放将是大势所趋。但是，基础写作题还只能是半封闭的，其特点是写作的内容是被规定了的，考生必须将文章所规定的信息点完整、全面地表达出来，但对于语言表达的方式、信息组织的先后秩序、需要补充哪些必要的信息等，考生又有一定的自主构思空间。

4. 用5句话表达。这是基础写作题与往年书面表达题最显著的不同点。往年是规定字数(100词左右)，句子的数量不作规定，所以很多考生为了不犯句法错误总是用一些简单句。而基础写作只能用5句话来表达题目所给的全部信息点，但所给的信息点与往年的书面表达相比并不会减少，所以，用5个简单句很难完成任务，必须使用复合句或并列句来综合多个信息点，而且还要照顾句子之间的衔接和语意上的连贯。从这一点来说，基础写作题对考生运用语言能力的要求大大提高了。

二、基础写作题提出的新要求

由基础写作题的特点可以看出，它对考生提出了一些新的要求。

1. 信息组织能力。笔者认为，信息组织能力包括信息归类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。对于题目所提供的各种信息点，考生首先需要依照一定的标准将信息进行归类，并初步计划将哪些信息放到同一个句子中;其次是将信息进行合理的排列，排列必须依照一定的标准，如时间顺序、空间顺序、因果关系、递进关系等;第三是选择信息表达的秩序，确定句子之间的先后关系，这既要考虑语法上能否衔接，还要考虑语意上的连贯。在组织信息的过程中，还要对某些信息进行必要的增删，使文章意思连贯、语言畅通、逻辑严密。

2. 运用复杂句子的能力。在整理和归类信息点之后，就需要正确地使用比较复杂的句子，综合地表达信息。复杂句子主要有三类：

第一类是复合句，包括含有名词性从句的复合句，含有定语从句的复合句，含有状语从句的复合句。

第二类是并列句，包括具有递进关系的并列句， 如由and，then，besides，in addition, furthermore，moreover, what’s more等连接的并列句，具有转折关系的并列句，如由but，however，on the contrary, after all等连接的并列句，具有平行选择关系的并列句，如由both…and…，as well as，as well，neither…nor…or，either…or…，not only…but also…等连接的并列句。

第三类是一些特殊句型，如使用强调句、倒装句、含有with复合结构的句子、there be开头的句子、以形式主语it开头的句子等。

正确地使用各种句型，不仅能够完成题目所要求的任务，还能使文章的句式变得丰富、行文更加流畅、中心和主旨更加突出。

三、基础写作题的备考策略

在基础写作的备考过程中，一方面要重视养成一些良好的写作习惯，如认真审题、巧妙构思、常写草稿、工整誊写、仔细核对等好习惯，另一方面在组织信息和训练复杂句子结构方面要多下些功夫。下面我们以“广东省普通高等学校招生全国统一考试广东省英语科考试说明”中的样题为例，探讨如何备考基础写作题。

第一节：基础写作(共1小题，满分15分)

假设你最近参加了由某电视台举办的中考生英语演讲比赛并获奖，该台准备组织获奖者去北京参加一次英语夏令营活动，下表是这次活动的时间安排和活动内容。

活动时间

7月15日-22日或8月15日-22日

活动内容

参加英语角 学唱英语歌曲

听英语讲座 表演英语短剧

看英语电影 教外宾学中文

【写作内容】

电视台现就活动时间和活动内容征求你的意见。请按照以下要求用英语以书信形式给予答复。

1. 选择适合你的时间并说明理由;

2. 解释你只能参加其中的两项活动(听英语讲座和教外宾学中文)，虽然你认为所有的活动都很有意义;

3. 说明你选择的理由：听英语讲座了解英美文化的信息;教外宾学中文因为2008北京奥运让越来越多的外宾想了解中国。

【写作要求】

1. 必须使用5个句子表达全部的内容

2. 信的开头和结尾已给出。

Dear Sir or Madame,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

【评分标准】

句子结构的准确性和复杂度;信息内容的完整性和连贯性。

由此我们可以看出，信息点的数量与往年的书面表达题相比并没有减少，要想用5个句子把所有的信息都表达出来，考生必须从以下三个方面进行备考：

1. 养成重视审题的习惯。虽然基础写作题是半封闭性的，但审题仍然十分重要。现以样题为例，谈谈如何审题：

思考的问题

样题分析

要写的文章主题是什么?(topic)

参加夏令营。

为什么要写这篇文章?(purpose)

电视台邀请参加夏令营，写信回复

要写文章的信息点有哪些?(information items)

选择的时间、参加活动的内容、解释为什么。

怎样安排信息点的逻辑顺序?(order)

说明要参加的活动并解释原因—→说明要参加的时间并解释原因。

动作是什么时候发生的(时态)?(when)

夏令营还没有开始，文章主要用一般将来时。

2. 提高组织信息的能力。组织信息的过程包括信息分类、信息排列和信息表达三个环节。这些步骤看起来好像很繁琐，但对于中下成绩的考生来说，一步一步地思考这些问题是很有必要的。现以样题为例，说明该怎样组织信息。

信息分类

信息排列

信息表达

时间信息：两个时间段。

内容信息：6项活动。

选择信息：其中的两个活动及其理由。

夏令营的内容信息点排列：可以将自己要参加的两项活动放在前面，其它信息点可以略写。

作者的选择信息点排列：依照自己所参与的活动顺序逐项表述，紧接着给出选择的理由。

结合已经给出的头和尾，写作的顺序可安排如下：

很高兴被邀请(已给出)——感谢安排这么多的活动——说明活动的意义——表达自己只能参加两项活动的遗憾和原因——说明参加的活动内容及原因(两项活动用两句话)——说明自己选择的时间及原因。

3. 夯实基础，掌握基本的句子结构及其用法。对于大多数考生来说，用词不准和句子结构错误是写作失分的“罪魁祸首”。夯实基础、掌握基本的句子结构及其用法是基础写作备考的主要任务，完成这项任务可以分步骤进行：

第一步：练习写简单句，练就写简单句基本不犯语言错误的“真功”。简单句大体上可以分为两个基本类型，考生必须掌握：“主语+谓语+(其它成分)”“主语+系动词+表语”。

第二步：练习运用复杂句。要提高运用复杂句的能力，考生必须要攻克三个易错点：一是主句与从句之间主谓结构混乱，造成主句缺谓语;二是没有掌握关联词的用法，错用、多用、漏用关联词;三是该使用简单句的地方人为地复杂化，如可以用分词或介词短语来表达的，却偏要用从句。

下面以样题为例，介绍笔者是如何思考写这篇文章的(为了分析方便，笔者将5个句子进行编号)，仅供参考：

Dear Sir or Madam,

I’m glad to be invited to the English summer camp. ①Thank you very much for arranging so many activities, such as English corner, English lectures, English films, English songs, English plays and helping foreigners learn Chinese. ②I am sure all the activities will do a lot of good to us students. ③But it’s a pity that I can only take part in two of them, because I will have to spend some time in doing my research project. ④I would like to listen to the lectures, by which I will learn more about western culture, and help foreigners learn Chinese, as more and more foreigners want to know about China and the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games.

⑤I want to see my grandparents in the country right after our school finishes in mid-July, so I am going to attend the camp from August 15th to 22nd.

Thank you very much.

Yours truly,

Li Ping

第①句顺应已给出的句中的glad心情，表示感谢安排这么多的活动，具有较好的连贯性。同时很自然地将活动内容做一介绍。

第②句用简单句表达活动的意义，语意上连贯，句式上没有继续用“长”句，有变化。

第③句用but转折并用it’s a pity 句型表示委婉的歉意，然后解释原因。

第④句用一个长句子表达自己要参加的两个项目，并解释原因，解释原因的第一句用定语从句，第二句用状语从句，使句子结构富于变化。

第⑤句解释参加的时间并给出解释。之所以把时间放在后面，主要是考虑它与题目已经给出的句子之间在语意上的连贯性不够。

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

考试就要开始了，对还有什么不了解的呢？为考生们提供各种面试、学习、择校等技巧及经验，希望可以帮助大家考得好成绩。在这里先网预祝大家考出理想成绩。

1.表文章结构顺序：

Firstofall,Firstly/First,Secondly/Second…

Andthen,Finally,Intheend,Atlast

2.表并列补充关系的：

Whatismore,Besides,Moreover,

3.表转折对比关系的：

However,Onthecontrary,but

Ononehand…Ontheotherhand…Some…，whileothers…

4.表因果关系的：

Because,As、So,Therefore,Asaresult

5.表换一种方式表达：

Inotherwords

6.表进行举例说明：

Forexample,句子;Forinstance,句子;suchas+n/doing

7.表陈述事实：Infact

8.表达自己观点：

AsfarasIknow,Inmyopinion

9.表总结：

Inshort,Inaword.

文中正确使用两三个好的句型，如：感叹句、宾语从句、动名词做主语等。

宾语从句举例：

IbelieveTianjinwillbemorebeautifulandprosperous.

感叹句举例：

HowIwanttostudyinthebestmiddleschoolinGuangzhou!

动名词做主语举例：

Readingbooksandswimmingaremyhobbies.

常用状语从句句型：

1)时间：

when,not…until(直到…才…)，assoonas(一…就…)

2)目的：

sothat+clause;(为了)

3)结果：

so…that…(如此…以至于…)，too…todo(太……以至于……)

4)条件：

if,unless(除非)，aslongas(只要)

5)比较：

as…as…(与…一样)，notso…as…，than

以上即是网为大家整理的英语作文写作技巧，大家还满意吗?希望对大家有所帮助!

小编寄语：定语从句是雅思比较熟悉也是作文中出现最多的一种语法结构,甚至有的作文中只有简单句和定语从句两种句型，但是大家都这么写或作文中出现不止三次定语从句的话，会导致句型单一。那今天我们就来说下如何变身这些定语从句。

定语从句综述：

在雅思写作这种半书面英语中，定语从句既可以修饰一个名词或部分代词，也可以修饰其前面整句话(这个时候定语从句谓语从句必须是单数哦，而且引导词必须是“，which”)。

比如：Anything which encourages language learning benefits society culturally and economically. 任何鼓励外语学习的事情有利于社会的文化和经济发展。这句话中的which 修饰不定代词anything。

再如：children spend much time watching TV,which gives rises to many health problems like obesity and poor eyesight.小孩花大量时间看电视，这样会引起很多健康问题，比如肥胖症以及视力下降。这里的which就在修饰其面整句话(children spend much time watching TV.)

改造定语从句的3大方法：

但是这样的句子在大部分的学员作文中出现的比较多，那怎么样让屌丝定语从句逆袭呢。其实有多种方法，今天我们先介绍大家容易掌握的3个方法。

1：如果定语从句修饰名词，而且定语从句的谓语动词是be动词，也就是N 关系代词BE 形式，这个时候我们可以把关系代词+be动词省略

比如：

A vast majority of people who are invited to the party are well-known scientists.

我们就可以把who are省略，改为：A vast majority of people invited to the party are well-known scientists.

这样我们就把原来普通的定语从句做定语改为了过去分词(非谓语结构的一种)做定语，而分词在书面英语中是一种常用而且比较书面的语法结构，所以建议想考6分以上的烤鸭们多多使用。

Employees who are from rural areas will confronted with many problems in major cities.(定语从句做定语)

Employees from rural areas will confronted with many problems in major cities.(介词短语做定语)

The number of students who cannot attend university is decreasing.

The number of students who are unable to have access to tertiary education is decreasing.

The number of students unable to have access to tertiary education is decreasing.(形容词短语做后置定语)

再比如：

Television which has been as one of the most fascinating inventions in the 20th century is now penetrating into every family.

Television, one of the most fascinating inventions in the 20th century, is now penetrating into every family.(同位语)

所以当作文中有多出类似的定语从句时，我们可以省略关系代词be动词或者把实意动词转化为be动词之后再省略，这样作文中就可以出现其他语法结构做定语，例如非谓语结构，介词短语，形容词短语，或同位语，而不单单是定语从句。那这样句型是不是就多样化了呢?

2：如果出现“名词关系代词实意动词”，这个时候我们可以替换为：n doing sth 形式。

比如：

Education, which helps children develop their thinking and accumulate their knowledge , is a deciding factor of ones success.

Education,helping children develop their thinking and accumulate their knowledge , is a deciding factor of ones success.

We told them they were the victims who deserved sympathy the most.

We told them they were the victims deserving sympathy the most

3:如果作文中出现了“，which”修饰其前面整句话的时候怎么改呢?

A-非谓语结构做状语: SVO, (thus)doing sth

B-概括性同位语: SVO，a/an 概括性名词that SVO

比如刚才提到的例句：

children spend much time watching TV,which gives rises to many health problems like obesity and poor eyesight.

children spend much time watching TV, giving rises to many health problems like obesity and poor eyesight.

children spend much time watching TV,a bad habit that gives rises to many health problems like obesity and poor eyesight.

一、表达方式：记叙、描写、抒情、说明、议论?

二、表现手法：象征、对比、烘托、设置悬念、前后呼应、欲扬先抑、托物言志、借物抒情、联想、想象、衬托(正衬、反衬)

三、修辞手法：比喻、拟人、夸张、排比、对偶、引用、设问、反问、反复、互文、对比、借代、反语?

四、记叙文六要素：时间、地点、人物、事情的起因、经过、结果

五、记叙顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙?六、描写角度：正面描写、侧面描写?

七、描写人物的方法：语言、动作、神态、心理、外貌

八、描写景物的角度：视觉、听觉、味觉、触觉?

九、描写景物的方法：动静结合(以动写静)、概括与具体相结合、由远到近(或由近到远)?

十、描写(或抒情)方式：正面(又叫直接)、反面(又叫间接)

十一、叙述方式：概括叙述、细节描写

十二、说明顺序：时间顺序、空间顺序、逻辑顺序

十三、说明方法：举例子、列数字、打比方、作比较、下定义、分类别、作诠释、摹状貌、引用?

十四、小说情节四部分：开端、发展、高潮、结局

十五、小说三要素：人物形象、故事情节、具体环境

十六、环境描写分为：自然环境、社会环境

十七、议论文三要素：论点、论据、论证

十八、论据分类为：事实论据、道理论据

十九、论证方法：举例(或事实)论证、道理论证(有时也叫引用论证)、对比(或正反对比)论证、比喻论证

二十、论证方式：立论、驳论(可反驳论点、论据、论证)

二十一、议论文的文章的结构：总分总、总分、分总;分的部分常常有并列式、递进式。

二十二、引号的作用：引用;强调;特定称谓;否定、讽刺、反语

二十三、破折号用法：提示、注释、总结、递进、话题转换、插说。

二十四、其他：

一、中国古代代学

(一)先秦代学

①上古神话。

中国古代神话名篇有:女娲(wā)补天后羿(yì)射日，精卫填海、(盘古)开天辟地、黄帝战蚩(chī)尤等。(刘安：《淮南子》)

②先秦散代

A、儒家经典。

“五经”指《诗经》、《尚书》、《礼记》、《易经》、《春秋》。

“六经”又称六艺 ，在“五经”后增加(《乐》)。

“四书”指《论语》《孟子》《大学》《中庸》。

B、历史散代。 《左传》《战国策》《国语》。

“春秋三秋”《左传》《谷梁传》《公羊传》。

C、诸子百家散代。 著名的有：

①老子，李耳， 字聃(dān)，道家学派创始人,著有《道德经》。

②孔子名丘,字仲尼。是儒家学派创始人、《论语》是孔子弟子记载孔子和他的学生言行的书。

③墨子名翟(dí)，墨家学派创始人。《墨子》53篇。

④孟子名轲，字子舆。儒家学派继承者。《孟子》是孟子学生记录孟子言行的书。《得道多助，失道寡助》《生于忧患，死于安乐》《庄暴见孟子》《鱼我所欲也》。

⑤庄子，名周，战国道家。著《庄子》。《庖丁解牛》

⑥荀子， 战国儒家,著《荀子》32篇、《劝学》

⑦韩非子，法家。著《韩非子》。《扁鹊见蔡桓公》《五蠹》《智子疑邻》。

⑧《吕氏春秋》又称《吕览》,是秦相吕不韦和他的门客的集体创作。《察今》。

⑨李斯的代表作是散代《谏逐客书》。

③先秦诗歌

A、《诗经》。《诗经》是我国第一部诗歌总集,共305篇分风、雅、颂三类、风是民歌,雅是乐歌,学习规律,颂是祭歌。诗经的表现手法是比、兴、赋。比即比喻，以彼物比此的。兴,先言他物以引起所咏之词，赋，直陈其事。

B、《楚辞》。西汉学者刘向把屈原宋玉等人的作品编辑成书，定名为《楚辞》。屈原(前340?-前277?)名平,我国伟大爱国主义诗人、曾在楚国任左徒三闾大夫等职。代有作是《离骚》《九歌》《九章》。

(二)、两汉代学

A、两汉散代

①贾谊，世称贾生。又称贾长沙，贾太傅。著《新书》十卷。《过秦论》、《论积贮疏》是他的代表作。

②司马迁，字子长,伟大的史学家、代学家。著《史记》首创“纪传体”,分为本纪、世家、列传、表、书。

鲁迅称《史记》为“史家之绝唱，无韵之离骚”。

③班固的《汉书》 刘向编订的《战国策》都名传史册。

B、乐府民歌和赋。乐,民乐;府，官府、乐府原为汉代音乐机关所搜集的诗、《孔雀东南飞》是汉乐府叙事发展的高峰。最早见于南朝徐陵编纂的《玉台新咏》、赋是我国古代韵代和散代的综合体。司马相如的《子虚赋》《上林赋》。贾谊的《吊屈原赋》都很有名。

(三)、魏晋南北朝代学

1、魏晋南北朝的诗歌和散代

①“三曹”、“三曹”即曹氏父子曹操、 曹丕、 曹植。曹操的《观沧海》，曹丕的《蒿里行》，曹植的《名都篇》《白马篇》《洛神赋》都很有名。

②“建安七子” 。孔融、陈琳、王粲、徐干、阮?、应?、刘桢

③“竹林七贤”。 阮籍、稽康、山涛、刘伶、王戎、向秀、刘咸

④陶渊明,名潜,字元亮，世称靖节先生。 《桃花源记》《归去来辞》《归园田居》《饮酒》是传世之作。

⑤此外, 诸葛亮《出师表》、范晔(yè)《后汉书》、陈寿《三国志》、王羲之《兰亭集序》、刘勰《代心雕龙》、郦道元《水经注》都名垂史册。

2、魏晋南北朝的小说。

①志怪小说以干宝《搜神记》为代表。 《干将莫邪》。

②轶事小说以刘义庆的《世说新语》为代表。《周处》。

英语一考生要在三十分钟内写出160-200个词汇的文章，英语二的考生需要完成150个词汇左右的文章。写作时要求主题突出、结构清晰、文字通顺、连贯性好，祛除语法错误。在考试过程中，考生能在有限时间内详细解读考题设问要求，并匠心独运的构想、拟题、列提纲，最后完成一篇考场佳作，这需要前期十分认真的备考。

在写作中，考生要特别注意文章的中心思想是否切题，论据是否足够充分，如不充分则要对论据详细展开。句语句、段与段连接要自然，逻辑关系清晰明晰，切忌不要出现与主题无关的句子。人称、时态等细节处要保持一致，单词拼写、大小写以及标点也要注意到位。

由于近些年图画作文较热，是考研英语写作中出现频率最高的一类文体，我们来重点学习一下这种文体的写作方法。

图画作文通常是给出一幅或多幅漫画或图片，所给图画多反映当前的热点社会现象或热点社会现实。这类作文难度较大，要求考生首先仔细剖析图画内容，并通过文字形式将图中所包罗的思想内容准确无误地表达出来。大家可将此类作文转化为三段或四段式的提纲作文写作。

1、认真审题

在审题时，考生要在认真剖析图画所反映的内容以及出题者出题意图的前提下，通过表层含义剖析图画真正想要说明的问题是什么，深入研究图画的表层含义和深层含义，从而挖掘出其深层含义以确定文章的中心思想。

2、确定写作重点

认真审题后，考生就要确定写作重点了，根据剖析和研究的结果列出提纲并安排段落。确定每一个段落的主题和写作重点，考生要根据题目要求对选材进行筛选。

3、确定写作提纲

如何列提纲，即考生对题设材料的剖析得出结论后形成的基本框架结构，漫画标的主题、directions中的要求包罗了哪些内容，文章段落应该如何组织，基本提纲确定了的基础上，才能思路清晰、行文流通。