英语写作基础考试【精品20篇】

导语：高考英语书面表达想拿高分并不容易，首先你要避免一些在学生中比较常见的几种错误才行。下面小编为大家整理了高考英语写作常见的错误，希望大家在考试中能够避免。

有的同学对于否定的概念模糊，不知如何否定，有时会写出不合规则或有异义的句子。

1. 我认为没有必要买大的。

误：I think its not necessary to buy the bigger one.

正：I don’t think it is necessary to buy the bigger one.

析：有些动词如think, believe, expect, suppose, imagine, guess, fancy等的主语是第一人称单数且一般现在时，表示否定的观点应用I don’t think…，而I think… not则属于汉语式表达习惯。

2. 我们直到天全黑了才到家。

误：We arrived home until it became completely dark.

正：We didn’t arrive home until it became completely dark.

析：此汉语句子里面尽管没有否定词，但until用于肯定句时意为“直到…为止”;用于否定句时，其意为“在…以前”。因此，表示“直到…才”用not…until。

3. 如果没有受到邀请的话，我是不会去参加舞会的。

误：I’ll not go to the party unless I’m not invited.

正：I’ll not go to the party unless I’m invited.

正：I’ll not go to the party if I’m not invited.

析：unless“除非”、“如果不”，常可用if…not来替换。误句中的条件状语从句双重否定表示肯定，结果与原句意思相反。

4. 那孩子不够大不能去上学。

误：The child is not old enough not to go to school.

正：The child is not old enough to go to school.

正：The child is too young to go to school.

析：这是学生最容易写错的句子。enough to“足以、足够”。原句中“不够大不能去上学”意思是“不够上学的年龄”，故应译为not old enough to go to school。

5. 他们两个都不说英语。

误：Both of them don’t speak English.

正：Neither of them speaks English.

析：中国学生特别对于all…not 和both…not等这种部分否定结构，很容易理解成全部否定。两者全部否定用neither, 三者以上用none。

6. 开车时再小心也不过分。

误：You can be too careful in driving a car.

正：You can not be too careful in driving a car.

析：cannot…too“无论作…也不过分”。

昨天下午，我们班进行了英语考试。今天，当试卷发下来以后，成绩是60分!从未有过的低分数!我被这个成绩怔住了，我迫不急待地打开试卷，想要看看到底是怎么一回事。 通过整张卷子的卷面来看，我最大的问题在于审题。最后，则是积累问题。这点可以从我的作文中看出，在我想到一句很好的话时，却因为一个单词而放弃。可见我平时的积累还是太少。因为这次成绩不太理想，所以有好好的分析卷子，写下了这篇反思报告。希望做到以上几点，并取得进步。

以下是由语文迷网精心为大家整理提供的关于教育的英语名言，欢迎大家参考选择。

Education has for its object the formation of character.

教育的目的在于品德的培育。——斯宾塞

He can ill be master that never was scholar.

没当过学生的人成不了一个好先生。

Teaching others teaches youself.

教学相长。

Better untaught than ill taught.

宁可不受教育也强于受坏的教育。

Instruction knows no cladistinction.

有教无类——《论语》

The best bred have the best portion.

最好的教养是最好的嫁妆。

A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. (H.B.Adams, American historian)

教师的影响是永恒的;无法估计他的影响会有多深远。(美国历史学家 亚当斯 H B)

Better be unboun than untaught, for ignorance is the root of misfortune. (Plato, Ancient Greek phiosopher)

与其不受教育，不知不生，因为无知是不幸的根源。(古希腊哲学家 柏拉图)

Dancing in all its forms cannot be excluded from the curriculum of all noble education: dancing with the feet, with ideas, with works, and ,need I add that one must also be able to dance with the pen? (Friedrich W.Nietzsche, German philosopher)

所有高尚教育的课程表里都不能没有各种形式的跳舞：用脚跳舞，用思想跳舞，用言语跳舞，不用说，还需用笔跳舞。(德国哲学家 尼采 F W)

Education commences at the mother’s knee, and every word spoken within the hearsay of children tends towards the formation of character. (Hosea Ballou British cducator)

教育始于母亲膝下，孩童耳听一言一语，均影响其性格的形成。(英国教育家 巴卢 H)

Education is a progressive discovery of our ignorance. (Durant, American historian)

教育是一个逐步发现自己无知的过程。(美国历史学家 杜兰特)

Educaton does not mean teaching people to kow what they do not know ; it means teachng them to behave as they do not behave. (John Ruskin, British art critic)

教育不在于使人知其所未知，而在于按其所未行而行。(英国艺术评论家 园斯金 J)

Education is a admirable thing, but it is well to remember from time to time that nothing worth knowing can be taught. (Oscar Wilde, British dramatist)

教育是令人羡慕的东西，但是要不时地记住：凡是值得知道的，没有一个是能够教会的。(英国剧作家 王尔得 O)

Example is always more efficacious than precept. (Samuel Johnson, British writer and critic)

身教胜于言教。(英国作家、批评家 约翰逊 S)

Histories make men wise ; poems witty; the mathematics subtle; natural philosophy deep ; moral grave ; logic and rhetoric able to contend.(Francis Bacon , British philosopher )

历史使人明智;诗词使人灵秀;数学使人周密;自然哲学使人深刻;伦理使人庄重;逻辑修辞学使人善辨。( 英国哲学家 培根. F.)

If you dont learn to think when you are young , you may never learn .(Thomas Edison , American inventor )

如果你年轻时就没有学会思考，那么就永远学不会思考。(美国发明家 爱迪生 . T.)

Natural abilities are like natural plants that need pruning by study.

(Francis Bacon , British philosopher )

天生的才干如同天生的植物一样，需要靠学习来修剪。(英国哲学家 培根 . F.)

A teacher affects eternity; he can never tell where his influence stops. (H.B.Adams, American historian)

教师的影响是永恒的;无法估计他的影响会有多深远。(美国历史学家 亚当斯 H B)

And gladly would learn, and gladly teach. (Chaucer, British poet)

勤于学习的人才能乐意施教。(英国诗人 乔叟)

Better be unboun than untaught, for ignorance is the root of misfortune. (Plato, Ancient Greek phiosopher)

与其不受教育，不知不生，因为无知是不幸的根源。(古希腊哲学家 柏拉图)

Education commences at the mothers knee, and every word spoken within the hearsay of children tends towards the formation of character. (Hosea Ballou British cducator)

教育始于母亲膝下，孩童耳听一言一语，均影响其性格的形成。(英国教育家 巴卢 H)

Educaton does not mean teaching people to kow what they do not know ; it means teachng them to behave as they do not behave. (John Ruskin, British art critic)

教育不在于使人知其所未知，而在于按其所未行而行。(英国艺术评论家 园斯金 J)

Education is a progressive discovery of our ignorance. (Durant, American historian)

教育是一个逐步发现自己无知的过程。(美国历史学家 杜兰特)

For a cultivated man to be ignorant of foreign languages is a great inconveniece. (Anton P.Chekhrv, Russian dramatist)

一个受过教育的人，不懂外语是极不方便的。(俄国剧作家 契克夫 A P)

下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，然后尝试写相关方面的作文题。

对于素材中用黑体字的部分，特别建议你熟读，背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能力无捷径可走，你必须大段背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没有任何人能代替你过。

因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背诵文章。何况，并不是要求你背了之后永远牢记在心：你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。背了工具箱里的文章后，你会惊讶的发现：I can think in English now！

1.?????? Proverbs

1. A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of students dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.

2. The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one’s mind a pleasant place in which to spend one’s time.

3. Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor justice can be permanently maintained.

4. The classroom--not the trench--is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore.

5. Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one.

6. It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will and intelligence to create our own destiny.

7. You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn’t answer questions; it provokes them.

8. People will pay more to be entertained than educated.

9.the most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is ornamentation and decoration of the structure.

10. The essence of our efforts to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each as equal opportunity, not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit he or she possesses.

11. A great teacher never strives to explain his vision-he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for yourself.

12. If you can read and don’, you are an illiterate by choice.

2. Damaging Research

A study by National Parent-Teacher Organization revealed that in the average American school, eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good themselves, but by the time they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.

3. Education and Citizenship

An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example, efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to improve their science and mathematics programs so that the nations would not fall behind the Soviet Union in scientific and technological capabilities.

Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, t is thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults. Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different groups in society have different have different expectations. Some feel that children should be taught basic job-related skills; still others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to improve parents in their children’s education.

Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National service, as Moscos defines it, would entail “the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages” and serve for at least one year. In return for this period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.

Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society, they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.

4. The Teacher’s Role

Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers, students’ experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later development. One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students’ subsequent adult status. The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big difference in children’s lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.

Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there is little opportunity for the students to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand, students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher’s authority: mentally withdrawing, interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.

5. Education Philosophy

For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1953), an American educator and writer. Dewey believed hat the school’s job was to enhance the natural development of the growing child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system, the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.

Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching “life skills” –logical thinking, analysis, creative problem--solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as an uncreative and somewhat vulgar.

In addition to “life skills”, schools are assigned to solve the ever growing stoke of social problems. Racism, teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and are just a few of the modern problems that have appeared on the school curriculum.

This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.

6. Student Life

To the students, the most notable difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior high they start “changing classes”. This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways, where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in these hallways, around which thy congregate.

Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading, scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. those who don’t become engaged in such activities or have afterschool jobs have plenty of opportunity to “hang out”, listen to teenager music, and watch television.

Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American parents have lower expectations for their children’s success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically, there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) “He’s just not a scholar”, the American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn’t take drugs. (Some of the young do choose to study hard, for reason of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies through Harvard Business School.)

What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests. Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A’s and F’s (teachers often grade A=excellent; B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A’s looks too soft—so students are aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.

Foreign students sometimes don’t understand that copying from other people’s papers or from books is considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group study habits a large contributor to their school success.

7. Adult Education

After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded, “But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do.”

So at least to this person, school requirements weren’t inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.

8. Moral Relativism in American

Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old things. At the time of our nation’s founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education, Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading history, and geography. But he also emphasized the need “to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and citizens.” Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one’s “morals” and “faculties”. That has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes, most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school’s original moral mission explains a great deal.

Starting in the early seventies, “values clarification” programs started turning up in schools all over America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to “clarify” his own values (which adults, including parents, had no “rights” to criticize). The “values clarification” movement didn’t clarify values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative, and personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.

In 1985 The York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to this new view, proclaiming, “They deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong.” The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor’s opinion, “He told them he believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. ‘If I come from the position of what is wrong,’ he explained, ‘then I’m not their counselor.’”

Once upon a time, a counselor offered counselor, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering “choices” or “options”.

In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from some quarters indignant objections (I’ve heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): “Who are you to say what’s important?” or “Whose standards and judgments do we use?”

The correct response, it seems to me, is, is we ready to do away with standards and judgments? Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to embrace some pretty silly position, we’ve got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded “elitist” trying to impose his view on everybody else.

The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come, as a surprise to those who fell that to be “progressive” is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Amold said, “the world is forwarded by having its attention fixed on the best things” and if the world can’t decide what the best things are, at least to some degree, then it follows that progress, and character, is in trouble. We shouldn’t be reluctant to declare that some things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach these better things.

At one time, we weren’t so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the “common school”, the forerunner of the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.

The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground of American values.

But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the publicthat schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.

There are those today still that claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in FederalistNo.10, the competing, balancing interests of a diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline, fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one’s faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of the common schools, and it is a legacy to which we must return.

9. Schools Should Teach Values

People often said, “Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?” this question deserves a candid response, one that isn’t given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford’s Mary Warnock has written, “You cannot teach morality without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding that some things are right and others wrong.” The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished from all other influences “by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is ‘right’, of what should be.” It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the “vocation as an educator finds its fundamental expression.”

There is no escaping the fact that young people need as example principals and teachers who know the difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.

As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked the students, “Is this a good school?” They answered, “Yes, this is a good school.” I asked them, “Why?” Among other things, one eight-year-old said, “The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them.” So I said, “Give me an example.” And another answered, “You can’t climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don’t climb on the pipes and the principal doesn’t either.”

This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something education should pay more attention to. You can’t expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain must be said, certain limits lay down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.

We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most “values education” exercises and separate courses in “moral reasoning” tend not to affect children’s behavior; if anything, they may leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what are morally right and wrong can indeed be known and that there is a difference.

What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and conversely, about Aesop’s shepherd boy who cried wolf if we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus and the character of Washington during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates told Crito: “No, I must submit to the decree of Athens.” If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King, Jr.’ “Letter from Birmingham jail.” From the Bible they should know about Ruth’s loyalty to Naomi, Joseph’s forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan’s friendship with David, the Good Samaritan’s kindness toward a stranger, and David’s cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.

These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the great, difficult controversies of the day. First things come first. We should teach values the same way we teach other things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject.

After all, we do not argue against teaching physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the Founders’ intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its fundamentals. So they are too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be healthy, happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.

10. College Pressures

Mainly I try to remind that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and approaches. They don not want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now – that they can follow unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.

What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and is not the end of the world.

My wish, of course, is na?ve. One of the national gods venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the young are growing up old.

I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure, peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their children too far, and the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains: only victims.

“In the late 1960s.” one dean told me. “The typical question that I got from students was ‘Why is there so much suffering in the world’ or ‘how I can make a contribution?’ Today it’s ‘Do you think it would look better for getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?’” many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: “They are trying to find an edge—the intangible something that will look better on paper if two students are about equal.”

Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security. How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for Borderline, even though, in Yale’s official system of grading, A means “excellent” and B means “very good.” Today, looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School, for instance, matriculates 170students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.

It’s all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it’s nice to think that admission officers are ready reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as positively shameful.

The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the days of the “gentleman’s C.” when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I do not know if they are getting As or Cs, and I do not care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They cannot.

Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now come to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich. But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now, the remainder keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up. Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing in American the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond of debt.

Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation. Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used “he,” incidentally, only for brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents, and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society has not yet caught up with this fact.

Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.

I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tem in other corners of their life as cheerful people.

“Do you want to medical school?” I asked them.

“I guess so,” they say, without conviction, or “Not really.”

“Then why are you going?”

“Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and …”

Poor students, poor parents, they are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and draughts toward a secure future. But the sons and daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy—subjects with no “practical” value. Where’s the payoff on the humanities? It’s not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on courses that point toward specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pre-business, or, as I sometimes heard it put, “pre-rich.”

But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obliged to fulfill their parents’ expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.

I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-round person and taking humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly opposed. He thinks that an artist is a “dumb” thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the “dumb” courses her father wants her to take—at least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in it—and she deserves to follow her muse.

Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of freshman year.

“I had a freshman student I’ll call Linda,” one dean told me, “who came in and said she was under terrible pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I could not tell her that Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda.”

The story is almost funny—except that it is not. It is symptomatic of all the pressure put together. When every student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: “Will I get everything done?”

Probably they won’t. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They will bug out.

Part of the problem is that they are expected to do. A professor will assign five page papers. Several students will start writing ten page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten page papers, and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.

“Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting,” one dean points out, “It’s bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic work, psychologically.”

Why cannot the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will. But by then the term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides, the professor’s main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and does not know that they are also overexerting in their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He did not sign up for dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from home. That’s what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.

To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students do not have as much time to spend. They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by their figure nails onto a shrinking profession.

If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by the budgetary axe.

Ultimately it will be the students’ own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are too young to be prisoners of their parents’ dreams and their classmates’ fears. They must be jolted into believing into themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.

“Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience,” says Carlos Hortas. “College should be open-ended: at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices narrow as they go along. It’s almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that exist-that they’ve got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best paying slot.”

“They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to life of colorless mediocrity. They’ll be comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing.”

I have painted too drab a portrait of today’s students, making them seem a solemn lot. That is only half of their story; if they were so dreary I wouldn’t so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are usually kind and are more considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.

Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups, and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices. Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they can spare and how to spend it.

This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the ‘60s they would have done both. They also tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale’s residential colleges, as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters, and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run will end and they can get back to their studies.

They also cannot afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—who’s past chairmen include such once and future kings as Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr.—much was made of the fact that the editorial staff used to be small and totally committed and that “newsies” routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today’s students will one or two articles a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I’ve never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.

If I have described the modern undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it’s because that’s where the crunch is, not only at Yale but throughout American education. It’s why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.

I tell students that there is no one “right” way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person, starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell neither them that change is a tonic and that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials, television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway products, artists, writers, economists, photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.

I asked them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to nudge them down some unforeseen trail.

11. To Err Is Wrong

In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateaus. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reports covered Yaz’s every more. Finally, one reporter asked, “Hey Yaz, aren’t you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?” Yastrzemski replied, “I look at this way: in my career I’ve been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I’ve been unsuccessful at the plate over seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head.”?

Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same process. As Yaz suggest, an activity that produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with creative thinking; the same energy that generates good creative ideas also produces errors.

Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on “the right answer” belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive system used in most schools:

Right over 90% of the time = “A”

Right over 80% of the time = “B~”

Right over 70% of the time = “C~” Right over 60% of the time = “D~” Less than 60% correct, you fail.

From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in other words, that “to err is wrong.

Playing It Safe

With this kind of attitude, you aren’t going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even a litter penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a “B” performance), you learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself to situation where you might fall. This leads to conservative thought pattern designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on “failure”.

I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master’s degree in Journalism. For the last six month, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about situation, and realized that her problem is that she doesn’t know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling to try any approaches where she might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping-stone to new ideas.

Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do you see who are to try anything new because of this failure? Most of us have learned not to make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experience except for those occurring in the most private of circumstances.

Different Logic

From a practical point of view, “to err is wrong” makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world requires us to perform thousand of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn’t last very long if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns decrease sales won’t keep their jobs very long.

Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief “to err is wrong” can greatly undermine your attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating original ideas, you’ll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain these right answers. By doing this, you’ll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend litter time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, “if you want the hits, be prepared for the misses.” That’s the way the game of life goes.

Errors as Stepping Stones

Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is “Jeez, another screw up, what went wrong this time?” the creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like, “Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?” and then he or she will go on to use the error as a stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filed with people who used erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping-stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of assumptions that were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a light bulb.

The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering was interested in improving gasoline engine efficiency. The problem he faced was“knockthe phenomenon in which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.

Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the “knock.” He thought to him, “How can I get the gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?” the key concept here is “early”. Searching for analogous situations, he looked around for models of “things that happen early.” He thought of historical models, physical models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which “happens early,” i.e., it blooms in the snow (“earlier” than other plants). One of this plant’s chief characteristics is its’ red leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color, which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.

Now came the critical step in Kettering’s chain of thought. He asked himself, “How can I make the gasoline red?” perhaps I’ll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that’ll make it combust earlier.” He looked around his workshop, and found that he didn’t have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine—perhaps that would do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn’t “knock”.

[英语作文写作的需要背诵的部分

作文一直是考生重点关注的部分，也是考试的重难点，考生可以抓紧时间背诵一些作文万能句型，考试的时候可以帮助自己提高作文水平，分享了四级考试英语作文的常用句型，一起来看看吧！

一.开头

1.Recently the phenomenon has become a heated topic.

2.Recently the problem has been brought into focus.

3. Nowadays there is a growing concern over ...  .

4. What calls for special attention is that...

5. There’s no denying the fact that...

6. what’s far more important is that...

7.It is common knowledge that honesty is the best policy.

8.It is well-known that…

9.Many nations have been faced with the problem of ...

10.According to a recent survey, ...

11. With the rapid development of ..., ...

二.结尾

1.From what has been discussed above, we can draw the conclusion that ...

2.In conclusion, it is imperative that ...

3.In summary, if we continue to ignore the above-mentioned issue, more problems will crop up.

4.With the efforts of all parts concerned, the problem will be solved thoroughly.

5.Taking all these into account, we ...

6. Whether it is good or not /positive or negative, one thing is certain/clear...

7.All things considered, ...

8.It may be safely said that...

9.Therefore, in my opinion, it’s more advisable...

10. It can be concluded from the discussion that...

11. From my point of view, it would be better if...

三.表比较

1.The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages.

2.The advantages of A are much greater than those of B.

3.A may be preferable to B, but A suffers from the disadvantages that...

5.For all the disadvantages, it has its compensating advantages.

6.Like anything else, it has its faults.

7.A and B has several points in common.

8.However, the same is not applicable to B.

9. A and B differ in several ways.

10. Evidently, it has both negative and positive effects.

四.表原因

1.A number of factors are accountable for this situation.

A number of factors might contribute to (lead to )(account for ) the phenomenon(problem).   2. The answer to this problem involves many factors.

3. The phenomenon mainly stems from the fact that...

4. The factors that contribute to this situation include...

5. The change in ...largely results from the fact that...

6. Part of the explanations for it is that ...

7. One of the most common factors (causes ) is that ...

8. Another contributing factor (cause ) is ...

9. Perhaps the primary factor is that ...

10. But the fundamental cause is that ...

五.表结果

1. It may give rise to a host of problems.

2. The immediate result it produces is ...

3. It will exercise a profound influence upon...

4. Its consequence can be so great that...

六.表反驳

1. It is true that ..., but one vital point is being left out.

2. There is a grain of truth in these statements, but they ignore a more important fact.

3. Many of us have been under the illusion that...

4. It makes no sense to argue for ...

5. Such a statement mainly rests on the assumption that ...

6. Contrary to what is widely accepted, I maintain that ...

七.表证明

1. No one can deny the fact that ...

2. The idea is hardly supported by facts.

3. Unfortunately, none of the available data shows ...

4. Recent studies indicate that ...

5. There is sufficient evidence to show that ...

6. According to statistics proved by ..., it can be seen that ...

[四级考试英语作文常用句型

1.至于我，在某种程度上我同意后面的观点，我认为……

As far as I am concerned, I agree with the latter opinion to some extent.I think that ____。

2.总而言之，整个社会应该密切关注……这个问题。只有这样，我们才能在将来……

In a word, the whole society should pay close attention to the problem of ______.Only in this way can ______in the future。

3.但是，……和……都有它们各自的优势(好处)。例如，……，而……然而，把这两者相比较，我更倾向于(喜欢)……

But ______and ______have their own advantages.For example, _____, while_____.Comparing this with that, however, I prefer to______。

4.就我个人而言，我相信……，因此，我坚信美好的未来正等着我们。因为……

Personally, I believe that_____.Consequently, Im confident that a bright future is awaiting us because______。

5.随着社会的发展，……因此，迫切需要……如果每个人都愿为社会贡献自已的一份力量，这个社会将要变得越来越好。

With the development of society, ______.So it“s urgent and necessary to ____.If every member is willing to contribute himself to the society, it will be better and better。

6.至于我(对我来说，就我而言)，我认为……更合理。只有这样，我们才能……

For my part, I think it reasonable to_____.Only in this way can you _____。

7.对我来说，我认为有必要……原因如下：第一，……; 第二，……;最后……但同样重要的是……

In my opinion, I think it necessary to____.The reasons are as follows.First _____.Second ______.Last but not least,______。

8.在总体上很难说……是好还是坏，因为它在很大程度上取决于……的形势。然而，就我个人而言，我发现……

It is difficult to say whether _____is good or not in general as it depends very much on the situation of______.However, from a personal point of view find______。

9.综上所述，我们可以清楚地得出结论……

From what has been discussed above, we may reasonably arrive at the conclusion that____。

10.如果我们不采取有效的方法，就可能控制不了这种趋势，就会出现一些意想不到的不良后果，所以，我们应该做的是……

If we can not take useful means, we may not control this trend, and some undesirable result may come out unexpectedly, so what we should do is_____。

1.individuals,characters, folks替换(people ,persons)

2: positive, favorable, rosy (美好的)，promising

(有希望的)，perfect, pleasurable , excellent, outstanding, superior替换good

3:dreadful, unfavorable, poor, adverse, ill (有害的)替换bad

如果bad做表语，可以有be less impressive替换

eg.An army of college students indulge themselves in playing games, enjoying romance with girls/boys or killing time passively in their dorms. When it approaches to graduation ,as a result, they records are less impressive.

4.(an army of, an ocean of, a sea of, a multitude of ,a host of, many, if not most)替换many.

注：用many, if not most 一定要小心，many后一定要有词。

Eg. Many individuals, if not most, harbor the idea that….同理 用most, if not all ,替换most.

5: a slice of, quiet a few , several替换some

6:harbor the idea that, take the attitude that,

hold the view that, it is widely shared that,

it is universally acknowledged that)替think

(因为是书面语，所以要加that)

7:affair ,business ,matter 替换thing

8: shared 代 common

9.reap huge fruits 替换get many benefits )

10:for my part ,from my own perspective 替换 in my opinion

11:Increasing(ly),growing 替换more and more( 注意没有growingly这种形式。所以当修饰名词时用increasing/growing.修饰形容词，副词用increasingly.

Eg.sth has gained growing popularity.

popular with the advancement of sth.

12.little if anything, 或little or nothing替换hardly

13..beneficial, rewarding替换helpful,

14.shopper,client,consumer,purchaser, 替换customer

15.exceedingly,extremely, intensely 替换very

16.hardly necessary, hardly inevitable ... 替换 unnecessary, avoidable

17.sth appeals to sb, sth exerts a tremendous fascination on sb 替换sb take interest in / sb. be interested in

18.capture ones attention替换attract ones attention.

19.facet,demension,sphere代aspect

20.be indicative of ,be suggestive of ,be fearful of代 indicate, suggest ,fear

21.give rise to, lead to, result in, trigger 替换cause.

22. There are several reasons behind sth 替换..reasons for sth

23.desire 替换want.

24.pour attention into 替换pay attention to

25.bear in mind that 替换remember

26. enjoy, possess 替换have(注意process是过程的意思)

27. interaction替换communication

28.frown on sth替换 be against , disagree with sth

29.to name only a few, as an example替换 for example, for instance

30. next to / virtually impossible,替换nearly / almost impossible

应用文是人类在长期的社会实践活动中形成的一种文体，是人们传递信息、处理事务、交流感情的工具，有的应用文还用来作为凭证和依据。随着社会的发展，人们在工作和生活中的交往越来越频繁，事情也越来越复杂，因此应用文的功能也就越来越多了。 所谓应用文是人们在生活、学习、工作中为处理实际事物而写作，有着实用性特点，并形成惯用格式的文章。下面小编给大家介绍应用文的写作基础知识。

一、应掌握的应用文写作基础知识

(一)公文格式

1、行政公文的格式的概念

2、行政公文的格式的内容

(1)眉首

(2)主体：是文件的主要部分，包括标题、主送机关、正文、附件说明、成文日期、印章、附注、附件八个部分。

(3)版记：版记也称文尾，位于公文末页最下部，包括主题词、抄送机关、印发机关和印发日期三个要素。版记的最后一个要素置于最后一行。

(二)行政公文的行文规则

一个机关的文件，按照行文关系、文件的去向，可以分为上行文、平行文、下行文和泛行文。

基本行文规则：

(1)根据机关隶属关系和职责范围行文的原则。

(2)公文不直接报领导者个人的原则。

(3)非特殊情况不越级行文原则。

(4)同级机关可以联合行文的原则。

(5)部门会签未经协调一致不得各自单独行文的原则。

受双重领导的机关向上级机关行文，应当写明主送机关和抄送机关。上级机关向受双重领导的下级机关行文，必要时应当抄送其另一上级机关。

以下两种情况不宜用抄送：

1.请示不得在主送上级机关的同时向其下级机关抄送;

2.凡与办理公文无关的机关一律不予抄送。

二、12种应用文体的写作

(一)计划与方案

(二)总结

个人总结行文结构一般由标题、正文、落款三部分组成。

标题：单位名称+期限+内容+文种

正文：1、前言：交代与中心内容有关的情况;

2、全面总结一般包括成绩收获、经验体会、问题教训三个部分;

3、总结经验教训，提出努力方向。

落款：写作者姓名、日期

(三)简报

简报是反映所在单位或系统完成工作任务的情况和经验，实际工作中出现的新情况、新问题及值得注意的新思路，或某项调查研究的成果和有价值的统计数字的内容简要的内部资料，起着上情下达、下情上达、左右沟通、交流经验的作用。

工作简报的版式由版头、正文、版尾等要素组成。

简报的写作要求：

1、新：反映新情况、新问题、新经验;

2、准：材料真实确切、问题切中要害、政策把握准确;

3、简：篇幅短小精悍，语言简洁明了;

4、快：迅速及时，快编快发;

5、全：要素齐全，格式规范。

(四)调查报告

调查报告是为了工作需要和特定目的，对某一事物、问题或事件进行调查研究后，通过分析、加工，利用调查材料和研究结论整理撰写出来的书面报告。

调查报告也称为考察报告。其主要特点

一、是针对性强—针对人们普遍关心的事情或者亟待解决的问题而写;

二、是用事实说话—报告的内容真实准确，建立在深入细致的调查研究基础之上;

三、是揭示规律性—通过对事实的分析研究，得出规律性的认识。调查报告按照调查范围和内容，可分为综合调查报告、专题调查报告;按照作用，则可分为基本情况的调查报告、典型经验的调查报告、新生事物的调查报告、揭露问题的调查报告、澄清事实真相的调查报告等五类。

调查报告一般由标题、正文、落款等三部分构成。

(五)汇报提纲

汇报提纲是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作时所撰写的汇报内容提要。按照汇报内容分为综合工作汇报提纲和 专题工作汇报提纲。汇报提纲在内容上具有特定的针对性，结构上具有逻辑条理性，语言上要求朴实简练。

汇报提纲一般分为标题、正文、落款三个部分。

(六)会议记录

会议记录是在开会过程中，由专门人员把会议的组织情况和具体内容如实记录下来的文字材料。

会议记录一般由记录头、记录主体、审阅签名三部分组成。

(七)会议纪要

会议纪要是一种常用公文，是在会议记录的基础上整理加工而成的、记载传达会议决定事项和主要精神，要求与会单位共同遵守、执行的，具有纪实性和指导性的公文。

会议纪要一般分为办公会议纪要和专题会议纪要。

会议纪要一般分为标题、日期、签发人、正文、落款五个部分。

(八)通知

通知适用于批转下级机关公文、转发上级机关和不相隶属机关的公文、发布规范性公文、传达事项、任免人员等。

通知是公文中使用频率最高、适用范围最广的一个文种，是上级向下级传达、告知事项的一种下行文。通知具有使用范围的广泛性、受文单位的专指性和较强的时间性，同时还具有行文简便、写法灵活、种类多样的特点。

通知一般可分为批示性(批转性)通知、指示性通知、事务性通知、知照性通知等。如：国务院批转财政部、国家计委关于进一步加强外国政府贷款管理若干意见的通知(批示性)、国务院关于进一步精简会议和文件的通知(指示性)、国务院关于发布《国家行政机关公文处理办法》的通知(发布性)、通辽市地方税务局关于作好五一长假期间值班值宿的通知(事务性)

通知一般由标题、主送机关、正文、落款和日期几部分组成。

(九)报告

适用于向上级机关汇报工作，反映情况，答复上级机关的询问。

报告是下级机关向上级机关汇报工作、反映情况、提出意见或者建议、答复询问与要求、报送资料使用的一种陈述性公文，是典型的上行文。

报告按内容可分为工作报告、情况报告、答复报告等。

报告中不得夹带请示事项或要求上级机关答复的事项。报告一般有标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。

(十)请示

适用于向上级机关请求指示、批准。请示具有隶属性，只有本部门和本系统的下级机关方可向上级机关请示。请示按其内容分有税政业务请示和行政事务请示两类。

下级机关向上级机关请示必须做到：凡属职权范围内的一般问题不随意请示;请示必须一文一事，且主送机关只有一个;请示必须在事前;上级机关收到请示后应认真研究，及时予以批复。请示属上行文，文末必须有请示语。

(十一)批复

批复是上级机关用来答复下级机关请示事项的下行公文。批复具有上级机关答复下级机关请示事项的专指性，下级有请示，上级才有批复。而且针对性极强，下级机关请示什么上级机关就答复什么。

批复由标题、主送机关、正文、成文日期组成。

标题：一般由“发文机关名称+事由+文种”构成。

主送机关：发出请示的下级机关。

正文：一般由批复依据、批复事项、执行要求三部分组成。

成文日期：

(十二)函

函适用于不相隶属机关之间商洽工作，询问和答复问题，请求批准和答复审批事项。内容上可分为申请函、商洽函、询问函、答复函、告知函。从行文方向上，“函”有来函和复函之分。函作为公文中唯一的一种平行文种，其适用的范围相当广泛。在行文方向上比较灵活，不仅可以在平行机关、不相隶属的机关之间行文，而且还可以向上级机关或者下级机关之间行文。有隶属关系的上下级机关之间不得使用函，上级机关的内设机构可以向下级机关的相关业务部门行便函，便函属于非正式文。

1. What is language for? Some people seem to think its for practicing grammar rules and learning lists of words--- the longer the words the better. Thats wrong. Language is for the exchange of ideas, for communication。

语言到底是用来干什么的呢?一些人认为它是用来操练语法规则和学习一大堆单词--而且单词越长越好。这个想法是错误的。语言是用来交换思想，进行交流沟通的!

2. The way to learn a language is to practice speaking it as often as possible。

学习一门语言的方法就是要尽量多地练习说。

3. A great man once said it is necessary to drill as much as possible, and the more you apply it in real situations, the more natural it will become。

一位伟人曾说，反复操练是非常必要的，你越多的将所学到的东西运用到实际生活中，他们就变的越自然。

4. Learning any language takes a lot of effort. But dont give up。

学习任何语言都是需要花费很多努力，但不要放弃。

5. Relax! Be patient and enjoy yourself. Learning foreign languages should be fun。

放松点!要有耐性，并让自己快乐!学习外语应该是乐趣无穷的。

6. Rome wasnt built in a day. Work harder and practice more. Your hard- work will be rewarded by god one day. God is equal to everyone!

冰冻三尺，非一日之寒。更加努力的学习，更加勤奋的操练，你所付出的一切将会得到上帝的报答，上帝是公平的。

7. Use a dictionary and grammar guide constantly. Keep a small English dictionary with you at all time. When you see a new word, look it up. Think about the word-- use it, in your mind, in a sentence。

经常使用字典和语法指南。随身携带一本小英文字典，当你看到一个新字时就去查阅它，想想这个字---然后去用它，在你的心中，在一个句子里。

8. Try to think in English whenever possible. When you see something think of the English word of it; then think about the word in a sentence。

一有机会就努力去用英文来思考。看到某事时，想想它的英文单词;然后把它用到一个句子中去。

9. Practice tenses as much as possible. When you learn a new verb, learn its various forms。

尽可能多的操练时态。学习一个动词的时候，要学习它的各种形态。

10. I would also like to learn more about the culture behind the language. When you understand the cultural background, you can better use the language。

我想学习和了解更多关于语言背后的文化知识，当你理解了文化背景，你就能更好地运用语言。

谈及写作训练,学生认为就是勤练笔,其实不然。英语的听、说、读、写四种能力是密切相关、相互渗透的。听和读是领会理解别人表达的思想,说和写是用言语表达思想。写的能力要在听、说、读的基础上进行培养和提高,而写的训练又能进一步提高听、说、读的能力。因此,写作训练应该贯穿于英语教学的全过程,才能真正提高学生的写作能力。

一、多读

“读是写的前提,写是读的升华”。一般而言,听和读的量必须数十倍地多于说和写的量,才能较自如地在口头上或书面上表达自己的思想。一方面,大量阅读可以提高阅读能力,扩大词汇量,另一方面,它还可以增强英语语感,对英语写作起着潜移默化的作用。只有当阅读量达到一定程度时,才能找到写好文章的语感。我们可以选择适合学生的读物,如英文报纸(《英语周报》、《21世纪报》)、杂志(《中学生英语园地》)、科普文章、书虫等(水平较高的学生可读小说原著)。大量阅读是学生接触英语语言材料、接受信息、活跃思维、增强记忆力的一种有效途径,同时也是培养学生英语思维能力、提高理解力、增强语感、巩固和扩大词汇量的一种有效方法,非常有利于写作。实践证明,学生平时课外阅读面越广,阅读量越大,运用英语表达的能力就越强。

二、多背

英语和汉语存在很大差异,语法规则和句子结构是不同的,很多学生在写作过程中难免会受到母语的影响,出现一些Chinglish(中式英语),而且有些语法规则也把握不准,谓语动词常出现“be+do”的错误形式或缺少谓语的现象。所以,背诵模仿是行之有效的手段之一。

(一)背课文

在多年的教学实践中,我坚持让学生背诵部分课文,较长的文章选背一两段,下节课抽查背诵,或进行默写。《新概念英语2》中很多英语短文通俗有趣,我给学生挑选其中一部分让他们背诵、默写,对培养学生的语感很有效。

(二)背范文

英语写作一般包括记叙文、说明文、议论文、应用文及开放性作文写作。我经过筛选,找出每种文体各五篇文章,同时,我也注重搜集一些好的范文和习作要求学生背诵。通过熟背精彩段落,使学生逐步掌握英语基本的表达方法,有助于模仿。而且,通过这些范文,学生可熟练掌握各种体裁的写作技巧,这是学生写好作文的一条捷径。经过一段时间的训练,学生就会有内容可写、写得出来。

三、多写

除了以上对学生进行读、背训练,还要对学生进行动手训练。学生只有通过写才能知道自己的不足与缺陷,毕竟说和写是两回事。

(一)改写课文

教师可要求学生把Reading缩写成一篇一百字左右的短文,也可让学生把对话改写成记叙文(如项链),这也是进一步理解课文的手段。一般在学完一个单元,学生熟练掌握课文之后,再做这一步,让学生尽量使用本单元的短语句型,同时,也要学着套用背诵的句子。

(二)写英语周记

让学生写英语周记,这是很多老师训练学生写作的方法。有些英语写作不好的学生,往往不坚持写或应付了事。对这样的学生,教师要严格要求,督促检查。对学生的每篇周记,教师都要认真批改。周记不必拘泥于形式,学生可以自由发挥。开始可以写简单的几句话,要求学生多用学过的词组、句型,多套用和模仿。逐渐地,学生会写多些,也会越写越流利,错误也会越来越少。

(三)每周练习写一篇作文

教师挑选一至两篇习作打在投影仪上,师生共同修改,然后让学生将改写过的文章抄写在作文积累本上。这样日积月累,学生考前只要翻翻自己的“作文本”,即可胸有成竹,这个习惯一定要养成,对学生会有很大帮助。

(四)限时写作训练

近年高考试题包容量大,知识覆盖面广,这就要求学生在做题时必须注意速度和节奏,而高考书面表达从时间分配上看,最多也只能是30分钟左右的时间,学生必须在有限时间内完成作文,并且要意思连贯,无严重语法错误。为达到这一要求,每届学生从高一开始,就应定期做限时写作训练。

四、多积累

(一)积累词汇

词汇是说话写作的必需材料,掌握词汇量的多少,是衡量一个学生英语水平高低的“标尺”。《教学大纲》规定的词汇是最基本的词汇,必须熟记。我在多年的教学中,每堂课都坚持让学生默写或听写单词,要求学生根据中文意思,写出单词的拼写形式、词类和词形变化。这就使学生积累了大量的词汇,为高考书面表达打下坚实的拼写基础,避免了因单词拼写错误而丢分。

(二)积累句型

我在平时授课过程中,让学生把重点句型记录在作文积累本上,随时翻看和背诵。如写观点类文章常用的Some share the view that...,Others hold the opposite opinion that...,The advantages far outweigh the disadvantages,As far as I’m concerned,以及常用到的定语从句、倒装句、非限、非谓、同位语、强调句型等。

(三)积累文章

学生背过的篇章、写过的作文,尤其是各种体裁的范文习作,要分类整理粘贴在作文积累本上,经常拿出来朗读背诵。我教过的学生,都积累了大量的范文习作,考试时可做到有备无患。

通过长期的写作训练,我狠抓学生基本功,学生的写作水平明显提高。我所教班级在每次考试中书面表达平均分都在同类班级之上。总之,英语写作训练是综合能力训练之一,写作能力的提高需要通过循序渐进的训练才能达到。听、说、读、写几方面的训练是相辅相成的,它们互相促进、互相制约,在平时教学中教师要合理安排,有机穿插,这样才能让学生“下笔如有神”。

导语：古人云："不积跬步，无以致千里，不积小流，无以成江河。"要写好作文，语言材料和生活感悟的积累是基础。下面是高中生写作基础指导，欢迎参考！

一，阅读与摘记

这里的阅读不仅仅是指语文课内的阅读，更不等同于语文课本的学习，还包括大量的课外阅读。只凭借语文课内的阅读，是难以满足积累语言材料的需要的。早在50多年前，叶圣陶先生就指出："国文课本为了要供同学试去理解，试去揣摩，分量就不能太多，篇幅也不能太长;太多太长了，不适宜做细琢细摩的研讨工夫。但是要养成一种习惯，必须经过反复的历练。单凭一本语文书，是够不上说反复的历练的。所以必须在国文教本以外再看其他的书，越多越好。" 要进行大量的课外阅读，首先要有阅读的条件，同学们可在图书室借书，也可以自己订课外书，或者同学之间互相交流。对于一本好书，反复诵读，在读中自悟，在读中自得，记住其中的要点，自己的感受以及好词佳句，古诗名句和名人名言等，分门别类地摘在笔记本上。再对这本书其他内容进行快速的浏览，得到想要的要点或具体的信息，就停下来，把它们记下。读完全书以后，回顾全文内容，根据要点列成提纲，从而整体把握。而我校的读书笔记，这个时候是最能派上用场的了。

二，观察与思考

作文源于生活。我们身边每天都在发生着不计其数的新鲜事，可惜，有些同学对此视而不见，听而不闻。可见，无材可写的根源是不善于观察。同学们观察时应调动一切感官，充分运用视觉，听觉，触觉，味觉，嗅觉，进行细致的观察。对观察到的现象，要给自己多提几个问题，多问几个为什么，并勇于向别人请教，要进一步分析，综合，比较，判断，以获取更全面更深刻的认识，觉得很有收获的就记下来。 同学掌握了大量的语言材料与生活素材，就为写作做好了准备。剩下要做的，就是实践，实践，再实践，也就是反复多次地进行习作训练。

三，每日一忆，每周一记

坚持写日记确实能有效地提高同学的作文能力，但也会给同学造成较重的课业负担。"每日一忆"改"记"为"忆"，只要求同学在入睡前，把一天中经历的事回想一下，把有意义的事情挑选出来，想想可以写成什么作文。第二天在课堂上交流，比比谁是生活中的有心人，最有"慧眼"，最会发现。如果碰到自己特别感兴趣又有把握写好的素材，就写成周记。 同时还要注意，积累要持之以恒，锲而不舍。英国著名科幻小说作家儒勒·凡尔纳为了积累写作材料，曾写了几百本读书笔记，摘录了两万多张卡片。

四，作文的修改

作文自己改，进步更显著。好作文是改出来的，"改错先于求美"，作文之道总是"先求其通次求其美"，同学学会自改作文则更是有益一生的事。 写作上必须努力通过各种途径，培养同学的主体意识，提高同学自主作文的能力和创新能力。兴趣是最好的老师，同学一旦对作文产生了浓厚的兴趣，就会"乐此不疲"。自由是作文的生命，让同学敞开自己的心怀，拥抱自己的天空，写出感情，写出个性。通过写作，从现实走向未来，从未知走向已知。

一、 主题句原则

国有其君，家有其主，文章也要有其主。否则会给人造成“群龙无首”之感!相信各位读过一些破烂文学，故意把主体隐藏在文章之内，结果造成我们稀里糊涂!不知所云!所以奉劝各位一定要写一个主题句，放在文章的开头(保险型)或者结尾，让读者一目了然，必会平安无事!

特别提示：隐藏主体句可是要冒险的!

To begin with, you must work hard at your lessons and be fully prepared before the exam(主题句).

Without sufficient preparation, you can hardly expect to answer all the questions correctly.

二、 长短句原则

工作还得一张一驰呢，老让读者读长句，累死人!写一个短小精辟的句子，相反，却可以起到画龙点睛的作用。而且如果我们把短句放在段首或者段末，也可以揭示主题：

As a creature, I eat; as a man, I read. Although one action is to meet the primary need of my body and the other is to satisfy the intellectual need of mind, they are in a way quite similar.

如此可见，长短句结合，抑扬顿挫，岂不爽哉?牢记!

强烈建议：在文章第一段(开头)用一长一短，且先长后短;在文章主体部分，要先用一个短句解释主要意思，然后在阐述几个要点的时候采用先短后长的句群形式，定会让主体部分妙笔生辉!文章结尾一般用一长一短就可以了。

三、 一二三原则

领导讲话总是第一部分、第一点、第二点、第三点、第二部分、第一点…如此罗嗦。可毕竟还是条理清楚。考官们看文章也必然要通过这些关键性的“标签”来判定你的文章是否结构清楚，条理自然。破解方法很简单，只要把下面任何一组的词汇加入到你的几个要点前就清楚了。

1)first, second, third, last(不推荐，原因：俗)

2)firstly, secondly, thirdly, finally(不推荐，原因：俗)

3)the first, the second, the third, the last(不推荐，原因：俗)

4)in the first place, in the second place, in the third place, lastly(不推荐，原因：俗)

5)to begin with, then, furthermore, finally(强烈推荐)

6)to start with, next, in addition, finally(强烈推荐)

7)first and foremost, besides, last but not least(强烈推荐)

8)most important of all, moreover, finally

9)on the one hand, on the other hand(适用于两点的情况)

10)for one thing, for another thing(适用于两点的情况)

建议：不仅仅在写作中注意，平时说话的时候也应该条理清楚!

四、 短语优先原则

写作时，尤其是在考试时，如果使用短语，有两个好处：其一、用短语会使文章增加亮点，如果老师们看到你的文章太简单，看不到一个自己不认识的短语，必然会看你低一等。相反，如果发现亮点—精彩的短语，那么你的文章定会得高分了。其二、关键时刻思维短路，只有凑字数，怎么办?用短语是一个办法!比如：

I cannot bear it.

可以用短语表达：I cannot put up with it.

I want it.

可以用短语表达：I am looking forward to it.

这样字数明显增加，表达也更准确。

五、 多实少虚原则

原因很简单，写文章还是应该写一些实际的东西，不要空话连篇。这就要求一定要多用实词，少用虚词。我这里所说的虚词就是指那些比较大的词。比如我们说一个很好的时候，不应该之说nice这样空洞的词，应该使用一些诸如generous, humorous, interesting, smart, gentle, warm-hearted, hospital 之类的形象词。再比如：

走出房间，general的词是：walk out of the room

但是小偷走出房间应该说：slip out of the room

小姐走出房间应该说：sail out of the room

小孩走出房间应该说：dance out of the room

老人走出房间应该说：stagger out of the room

所以多用实词，少用虚词，文章将会大放异彩!

六、 多变句式原则

1)加法(串联)

都希望写下很长的句子，像个老外似的，可就是怕写错，怎么办，最保险的写长句的方法就是这些，可以在任何句子之间加and, 但最好是前后的句子又先后关系或者并列关系。

比如说： I enjor music and he is fond of playing guitar. 如果是二者并列的，我们可以用一个超级句式：Not only the fur coat is soft, but it is also warm. 其它的短语可以用：besides, furthermore, likewise, moreover

2)转折(拐弯抹角)

批评某人缺点的时候，我们总习惯先拐弯抹角说说他的优点，然后转入正题，再说缺点，这种方式虽然阴险了点，可毕竟还比较容易让人接受。所以呢，我们说话的时候，只要在要点之前先来点废话，注意二者之间用个专这次就够了。

The car was quite old, yet it was in excellent condition.

The coat was thin, but it was warm.

更多的短语：despite that, still, however, nevertheless, in spite of, despite, not with standing

3)因果(so, so, so)

昨天在街上我看到了一个女孩，然后我主动搭讪，然后我们去咖啡厅，然后我们认识了，然后我们成为了朋友…可见，讲故事的时候我们总要追求先后顺序，先什么，后什么，所以然后这个词就变得很常见了。其实这个词表示的是先后或因果关系!

The snow began to fall, so we went home.

更多短语：then, therefore, consequently, accordingly, hence, as a result, for this reason, so that

4)失衡句(头重脚轻，或者头轻脚重)

有些人脑袋大，身体小，或者有些人脑袋小，身体大，虽然我们不希望长成这个样子，可如果真的是这样了，也就必然会吸引别人的注意力。文章中如果出现这样的句子，就更会让考官看到你的句子与众不同。其实就是主语从句，表语从句，宾语从句的变形。

举例：This is what I can do.

Whether he can go with us or not is not sure.

同样主语、宾语、表语可以改成如下的复杂成分：

When to go, Why he goes away…

5)附加(多此一举)

如果有了老婆，总会遇到这样的情况，当你再讲某个人的时候，她会插一句说，我昨天见过他;或者说，就是某某某，如果把老婆的话插入到我们的话里面，那就是定语从句和同位语从句或者是插入语。

The man whom you met yesterday is a friend of mine.

I don’t enjoy that book you are reading.

Mr liu, our oral English teacher, is easy-going.

其实很简单，同位语--要解释的东西删除后不影响整个句子的构成;定语从句—借用之前的关键词并且用其重新组成一个句子插入其中，但是whom or that 关键词必须要紧跟在先行词之前。

6)排比(排山倒海句)

文学作品中最吸引人的地方莫过于此，如果非要让你的文章更加精彩的话，那么我希望你引用一个个的排比句，一个个得对偶句，一个个的不定式，一个个地词，一个个的短语，如此表达将会使文章有排山倒海之势!

Whether your tastes are modern or traditional, sophisticated or simple, there is plenty in London for you.

Nowadays, energy can be obtained through various sources such as oil, coal, natural gas, solar heat, the wind and ocean tides.

We have got to study hard, to enlarge our scope of knowledge, to realize our potentials and to pay for our life. (气势恢宏)

要想写出如此气势恢宏的句子非用排比不可!

七、 挑战极限原则

既然是挑战极限，必然是比较难的，但是并非不可攀!

原理：在学生的文章中，很少发现诸如独立主格的句子，其实也很简单，只要花上5分钟的时间看看就可以领会，它就是分词的一种特殊形式，分词要求主语一致，而独立主格则不然。比如：

The weather being fine, a large number of people went to climb the Western Hills.

Africa is the second largest continent, its size being about three times that of China.

如果您可一些出这样的句子，不得高分才怪!

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。下面是小编为大家整理的关于记叙文的六要素的写作基础，欢迎大家阅读!

1.记叙文一般都具备六要素，但有的记叙文，如果其中某些要素是读者熟知的，或者某些要素不交代不影响表达效果，是可以省略的。

2.记叙的人称有第一人称和第三人称。以“我”的口吻或角度来叙述的是第一人称，如《小桔灯》《孔乙己》等。采用第一称来写，便于直抒胸臆，读起来有一种亲切感和真实感。以第三人称的角度来叙述文章中的人物、事件、场景等，如《皇帝的新装》。其优点在于不受空间和时间的限制，能从更多的方面自由地叙述。

3.记叙文的线索形式有：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索。多数记叙文存在着两条或两条以上的线索。如《藤野先生》，文章除了以作者与藤野先生交往为叙事线索(明线)外，还有作者爱国主度思想感情这一暗线。

4.记叙的顺序要求掌握的是顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种。顺叙指记叙的时候按照事情发生、发展、和结局的顺序来写，前因后果、条理很清楚。如《一面》;倒叙，指记叙的时候把后发生的事情写在前面，把先发生的事情写在后面。先把结局说出来，吸引读者了解其起因和过程，如《背影》;插叙，指在记叙过程中，需要插入另一些有关的情节，再接着叙述后来的事情，如《驿路梨花》。

5.记叙文常用的层次划分方法有以下几种：

(1)按事件和发展过程来划分《皇帝的新装》

(2)按空间转换来划分，如《老山界》

(3)按内容变化来划分，如《从百草园到三味书屋》

(4)按人物、场景变化来划分，如《分马》

(5)按感情变化来划分，如《荔枝蜜》不太喜欢蜜蜂—想去看蜜蜂—赞美蜜蜂—想变成蜜蜂。

(6)按表达方式的变换来划分，如《一件珍贵的衬衫》，抒情—记叙—抒情、议论。

6.理解和分析记叙文中叙述、描写、议论、抒情等多种表达方式综合运用的特点和作用。理解和分析记叙文中常用的表现手法(象征、对照、衬托等)和修辞手法(比喻、拟人、排比等)，理解记叙性语言准确、生动的特点。

7.记叙文虽然以叙述、描写为主要表达方式，但常常借助议论、抒情、说明来开拓意境，深化主题。很多是各种表达方工综合运用。

(1) 叙述：把人物的经历和事物的发展变化过程表达出来的一种表达方式。它是写作中最基本、最常见、也是最主要的表达方式。

(2 )描写：是对人物的外形、动作、事物的性质、形态和景物的状貌，变化所作的具体刻画和生动描摹。

(3 )说明：是用简明的语言、客观而准确地解说事物或阐述说事理的一种表达方式。

(4)抒情：是作者通过作品中心人物表达主观感受，倾吐心中情感的文字表露，可分为直接抒情、间接抒情两种。直接抒情即直抒胸臆。间接抒情是在叙述、描写、议论中流露出爱憎感情。

(5)议论:根据作品写出自己的见解或道理.

8.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动。

小结：

1.记叙文的要素

2.记叙文的人称

3.记叙文的线索：1以时间转移为线索2以一人3以一事4以一物为线索

4.记叙文的顺序：顺叙、倒叙、插叙三种

5.记叙文的划分

6.记叙文的表达方式：叙述、描写(语言，动作，外貌，心理，神态，环境等或正面，侧面)、议论、抒情、说明等

7.记叙文的语言的特点：准确，生动

8.记叙文的表现手法：白描、衬托、渲染、对比、伏笔、铺垫等。

总结：

1.关于记叙文和文学作品阅读题的解答主要从两主面着手：

一是概括文章的内容，抓住以下几个要点：

(1)把握记叙文的要素，以写事为主的应明确写什么事，写人为主的应明确写什么样的人。

(2)把握关键性语句，揣摩作者为什么要写这些人、事。

(3)分析层与层之间的关系，理清文章脉络，然后概括。

二是弄清记叙文和文学作品的结构特点及表现形式。掌握以下划分段落的方式：

(1) 以时空变化划分 (2) 以作者思想感情的变化来划分 (3) 按记叙内容的变化来划分 (4) 按描述角度的变化、事情发展的阶段来划分

2.文段在内容上：以中心、意思相联系(思想感情)来答

在结构上：

文段在开头：总起全文

文段在中间：承上启下

文段在结尾：总结全文或照应主题或首尾呼应。

记叙文的阅读，要明确有关的知识点，把握其文体特征。

一、记叙文的概念：记叙文是以记叙、描写为主要表达方式，以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主要内容的文章。中学阶段，为了教学的方便，常常把消息、通讯、人物传记、回忆录、寓言、童话、小说等，都划归到记叙文教学中。

二、记叙文的分类：从写作内容与方式看，可分为两类：简单的记叙文和复杂的记叙文。从写作对象的不同，可分为四类：

1.写人的记叙文;2.叙事的记叙文;3.写景的记叙文(即散文);4.状物的记叙文。

三、记叙的要素：记叙文有六要素——时间、地点、人物、事件的起因、经过、结果。

四、记叙的顺序：常用的有三种——顺叙、倒叙、插叙。

五、记叙的线索：一般有以下几种——人线、物线、情线、事线、时线、地线。

六、记叙的人称：一般采用第一人称或第三人称，个别时候使用第二人称。

七、记叙的中心与详略：整体感知，准确把握文章中心。分析材料与中心的关系，理解材料的详略安排。

八、记叙文所用的表达方式：常见的是五种——记叙、描写、说明、议论和抒情。比较复杂的记叙文，往往几种表达方式综合运用。

俗话又说：一言既出，驷马难追。诚信是立足之道，为人之本。下面请看语文迷为大家整理的关于诚信的英语名言，希望对你有帮助。

believes really is to link the intelligent bridge up , to be expert in the people who cheats , to arrive at forever the bridge another one holds without end. The sincere message, is one strands of Qing Quan诚信是沟通心灵的桥梁，善于欺骗的人，永远到不了桥的另一端。

Heres the rule for bargains "Do other men, for they would do you." Thats the true precept.Charles Dickens. British novelist这里有一条交易法则：“欺骗他人，因为他们也欺骗你。”这是真正的经商之道。英国小说家 狄更斯 C

it will wash away Augean stable cheating , lets everyone the world corner be flowing cleanly.诚信，是一股清泉，它将洗去欺诈的肮脏，让世界的每一个角落都流淌着洁净。

Economy the poor mans mints; extravagance the rich mans pitfall.Martin Tupper. American economist.节约是穷人的造币厂，浪费是富人的陷阱。美国经济学家 塔珀 .M。

the sincere message is the most beautiful overcoat of person , is an intelligent the holiest and purest fresh flower.诚信是人最美丽的外套，是心灵最圣洁的鲜花。

the sincere message is your no humble price shoes , traverses the length and breadth of a journey filled with numerous difficulties and dangers, mass cantrespondtoeternalinvariable.诚信是你价格不菲的鞋子，踏遍千山万水，质量也应永恒不变。

Did you ever expect a corporation to have a conscience, when it has no soul to damned, and no body to be kicked?Edward Thurlow, British Lawyer公司既没有灵魂可以被诅咒，又没有躯体可以被踢翻，难道你指望它有什么良心吗?英国律师 瑟洛杉矶 .E.

If Enterprise is afoot, wealth accumulates whatever may be happening to Thrift; and if Enterprise is asleep, wealth decays, whatever Thrift may be doing.John Maynard keynes British economist如果企业在进展，不论节俭不节俭，财富也在衰落。国经济学家 凯恩斯 .J.M.

the sincere message is a road, with the fact that pioneers step extends; The sincere message is wisdom , seeks rope accumulation with having a wide knowledge of a scholars; The sincere message is successful , persons going all out approaches with advancing bravely; The sincere message is the wealth seed , is therefore likely to find the key opening a state treasury as long as your sincere desire moves downwards kind.诚信是道路，随着开拓者的脚步延伸;诚信是智慧，随着博学者的求索积累;诚信是成功，随着奋进者的拼搏临近;诚信是财富的种子，只要你诚心种下，就能找到打开金库的钥匙。

sincere message resembles a mirror , break in a single day, crack will appear over your personality.诚信像一面镜子，一旦打破，你的人格就会出现裂痕。

is sincere for message glorious , breaking faith disgraceful. That诚信为荣，失信可耻。

Busineunderlies everything in our national life, including our spiritual life, Witnethe fact that in the Lords prayer the first petition is for daily bread, No one can worship God or love his neighbor on an empty stoach.Woodrow Wilson. American President生活包括精神生活的基矗不容置疑的事实是，在主祷文中向上帝祈求的第一件事是让我们天天有面包。没有人能饿着肚子敬奉上帝或热爱他的邻居。 美国总统 威尔逊 W.

the sincere message is foundation of conducting self , base of starting ones career.诚信是做人之根本，立业之基。

establishes up sincere message campus , sets up up sincere message style of study , becomes the sincere message student.创起诚信校园，树起诚信学风，成为诚信学子。

诚信的英语作文

What is integrity? Integrity is a good quality of being honest. It is a fine virtue for everyone. A man of integrity is loved by all. Without integrity, he will lose the best friend.

Integrity is especially important for students. We should finish our homework independently. We must return books when it is due. We should listen to the teacher carefully no matter what kind of lesson it is. If we promise to do something, we should try our best to do it well.

论文是以议论和说理为主的文章，其主要表达方式是议论。小编收集了议论文写作基础，欢迎阅读。

论文是以议论和说理为主的文章，其主要表达方式是议论。论点、论据、论证是议论文的三要素。论点是统摄全文的观点，是全文的灵魂，也是其它两个要素围绕的核心。论据是用来证明论点正确性的材料足够的事实或正确的道理，它必须服从并服务于中心论点。论证是运用论据来证明论点的过程，它是论点和论据之间的逻辑联系纽带。论据和论证必须指向明确，且有说服力，才能形成整体合力，从而影响别人的想法，接受文中的主张。这就要增强议论的向心力。

向心力原来是个物理学概念，是指使质点(或物体)作曲线运动时所需的指向曲率中心(圆周运动时即为圆心)的力。这里我们借用这个概念来形象说明一下议论文的写作吧。这个心就是中心论点，这个向心力指的就是论据、论证的说服力;增加质点质量材料或加大速度论证即可增加向心力。为了证明自己的论点的正确，我们常常要从不同的角度，多方面地给出论据，并运用多种论证方法来证明论点。如果这些论证和论据是有系统的、有说服力的(当然是正确的)，那议论的向心力就会增强，中心论点就能使人信服。反之，则会弱化向心力，甚至还会产生离心现象，将极大地削弱论证力度，最终使论点立不住，甚至不可信，达不到使人信服的目的。

对论据而言，首先要增强论据的真实性、典型性和新颖性。真实性是基础，不能随意捏造，因为议论文要靠论据来支撑，如果有一个论据是假的，那读者就会窥一斑而见全豹，推而广之，进而全盘否定你的观点。对于引用名人名言，一定要写明谁说的，否则就会减少可信度，读者大都有因其人而信其言的思维定势，所以平时是要牢记一些名人名言在脑中的。典型性是公信力的保证，家长里短、道听途说当不得论据，所举论据应该是众所周知、公认的事实或定理原理，而且是最典型的，这样才能以一当十，增强说服力。新颖性是在前两者基础上，突出论据的新鲜感和时效性。其次要扩大论据的覆盖面。一般来说，文中所举论据应避免重复，尽可能兼顾不同领域、范围(有时同一领域的多数量也能增强说服力)。古今中外、社会科学、自然科学、个人、集体、国家是思考的几个常见维度。第三要注意论据的表述。对道理论据一般表述为某人说过某话就可以了，对事实论据的表述则要注意内容表述的指向性。要在陈述事实的同时，鲜明地将与中心最密切的关联处清晰地表达出来，而不是淹没在材料中让读者猜测、揣摩，而且还要着重对事实的结果进行交待，以增强说服力。一般在叙述时要关注四个要点：人、事、果、倾向性词语(某人做某事最终结果怎样)。倾向性词语是指能清晰表明与论点一致性的醒目的词语或语句，使论据与论点保持逻辑上的高度一致性。当然，无论是举例还是引用，在这之后最好加上分析说理的句子，以使论据与论证紧密结合形成合力，共同有力地证明论点。例文很好地体现了这些特点。

对论证而言，要增强论证的严密性，这需要学习一些逻辑知识。可以说，逻辑性是议论文的生命。我们一般总会用到归纳法和演绎法。归纳是由个别到一般，演绎是由一般到个别;归纳法限于已知，指向温故，演绎法助人探求未知，指向知新。运用归纳法时注意不要以偏概全，把话说死说绝了，需要辩证、全面;运用演绎法时注意推论的合理性，要符合逻辑。特别要注意语言的准确性和严密性，用语要恰当，造句求精密。

怎样写出一篇好的作文呢？以下，小编为大家介绍语文写作基础：写作基本思路，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览！

1、审题。

审题就是分析文章的题目，弄清题目的意思。审题包括三方面内容（1）找出重点词，有些题目，有一个关键词，也叫“题眼”，题眼就是写作的重点。如《一件难忘的事》中的“难忘”之类。（2）搞清写作的范围和要求，即时间、地点、人称、数量、内容等限制范围。（3）弄明白是写人的，是记事的，还是状物、写景的。

2、确定中心。

记叙文总要表达一个思想，说明一个道理或表现某一方面的思想感情，这就是文章的中心。文章的中心要正确，对社会上正确的现象加以歌颂，错误的现象给予批评。中心正确，健康是文章的根本，对此必须首先要注意。中心还要求集中，一篇文章一般只能有一个中心，各方面内容都要紧紧围绕中心写。

3、选择材料。

作文的内容就是材料。写作文要紧扣中心选择材料，与中心关系不大的或无关的，要少选或不选。所选的材料还要真实、具体，真实就是不凭空编造，不夸大也不缩小。同时，还要注意材料的新颖、典型，不落俗套，要能够清楚地反映人或事的特点。

4、安排结构。

所谓安排文章的结构，指的是文章的材料的组织安排。如先写什么，再写什么，最后写什么，以及怎样开头，结尾，过渡等。文章的材料，常用以下这些方法安排：（1）按事情发展的顺序；（2）按时间顺序；（3）按空间的顺序；（4）按事物的几个方面。

5、列提纲。

提纲，是结文章的总体设计，具体包括：（1）文章的题目；（2）中心思想；（3）写作的顺序；（4）详写，略写的提示。提纲不能太详细，也不能太简单。

6、文章的开头和结尾、过渡和照应。

常见的开头有：（1）开门见山，直入正题；（2）概括全文，揭示中心；（3）提出问题，引起注意；（4）环境描写，渲染气氛；（5）说明情况，介绍背景；（6）先说结果，倒叙开头。结尾的方法有：（1）自然方式结尾；（2）总结式结尾；（3）含蓄式结尾；（4）启发式结尾。文章的过渡，应力求自然。照应，指的是文章中前后内容的关照呼应。最常见的是文章的首尾照应。

写事的文章要注意以下几点：

1、要把事情发生的时间、地点、人物，事情的起因、经过、结果交代清楚；

2、一般可以按事情的发展顺序写，写清楚事情的来龙去脉，前因后果；

3、要突出重点，不要平铺直叙，重点的场面或过程要详写，写具体；

4、环境描写对反映文章的中心很有作用，所以在叙事时，有时也要注意写清楚环境。

写人文章应请注意以下几点：

1、要抓住人物的特点写，并把人物所做的事具体地写出来，用最能反映人物精神风貌的典型事例去刻画人物；

2、注意写好人物的外貌（包括容貌、衣着、神情等），语言，动作，特别是能反映人物特点的语言和行动，更要准确、细致的描写；

3、心理活动是指一个人的思想活动。恰当的心理、活动，可以更好地表现人物的思想品质，突出中心思想；

4、如果是通过几件事写人的，可以采用详写一件事，略写另几件事的写法，几件事需并列写的，则可按时间先后顺序来写。

写景、状物的文章要注意以下几点：

1、要抓住景和物的特征写。所谓特征就是同其他物体有区别的地方，抓住特征描写，才能给读者留下深刻的印象；

2、写景、状物要言之有序，如从上到下，从左到右，从外到内，从中间到两边等。不能一下子说这，一下子说那，东拉西扯，没有顺序；

3、写景、状物过程中要进行合理的联想，抒发自己的真情实感，还要恰当运用比喻、拟人等修辞手法，把描写的景物写生动，写形象；

4、状物要描写物体的大小，形状，颜色，质地，做到写什么，像什么。写活动的文章要注意以下几点：

写活动一般是命题作文。

1、可以按活动的过程写，但也可先写结果，再写活动过程，总之要有顺序；

2、要突出重点，有详有略，特别要注意把活动的过程写清楚；

3、注意写好活动中人物的感受。

在写记叙文时，如果要使文字内容更具体，不空泛，一定要把叙述与描写结合起来。那么如何才能结合好呢?我们首先需要了解一下这两者的基本概念和作用。怎么结合呢?下文是小编整理的相关内容，欢迎阅读参考!

叙述和描写。是作文中两种不同的表现方式。我们这里说的叙述是指把人的经历行为或事件的发生、发展变化表述出来的一种表达方式，它常常把分散的场景，片断的故事和人物的身世，地位，经历，事迹等贯穿起来。它要求做到头绪清楚，脉络分明，有条有理，重点突出。

在记事、写人、状物的文章中，叙述是不可少的，尤其是在介绍人或事物变化为主的文章中叙述的作用更大，甚至有的文章专以叙述为长。我们本讲选的优秀作文《男班长，女班长》就是一个很好的例子。文章中描写部分很少，介绍事件发展过程的叙述占了很大的篇幅，如开头对男女班长来自何方的介绍，女班长对男班长的观察，正副班长必须合作的现实，以及同学们的揶揄，思想的顾虑，同学开玩笑不断，“收到副班长纸条”，到结尾“男女班长仍然合作着处理班里的事务”。这篇文章用很短的篇幅，以叙述为主，把一波三折的事件按发展轨迹清晰有序地介绍出来。对发展过程虽是梗概地介绍，但文章的思想内涵却非常丰富，也可以说在写法上是比较巧妙的。

叙述在按事件发生发展、人物经历的时间来划分，可以有顺叙，倒叙、插叙、补叙等方式，我们在写文章时，可以根据表达的需要去选择叙述的方式。

描写是对人物，事物和环境所作的具体的描绘和摹写，描写是再现描写对象状态的一种表达方式。描写需要采用绘声绘色的办法，把事物的状貌、神采和动态，具体地、真切地饱含情意地勾画出来。写人要使其声可闻，其容可睹;写物要使之可见，可闻，可触，可感;写景要意境鲜明，使读者产生仿佛置身其间的幻觉。

在我们学过的课文中，传神的描写是很多的。如《天山景物记》中对天山深处的描写，“山色逐渐变得柔嫩，山形也变得柔和，很有一伸手就可以触摸到凝脂似的感觉。这里溪流缓慢，萦绕着每一个山脚，在轻轻荡漾着的溪流的两岸，满是高过马头的野花，红、黄、蓝、白、紫，五彩缤纷，像绵延的织锦那么华丽，象天边的彩霞那么耀眼，像高空的长虹那么绚烂。”这段描写抓住山色、溪流、野花这三种最能表现天山特点的事物，重彩浓墨，绘声绘色地把天山美景表现出来。既能使读者如身临其境，也增添了作品的文采。我们在作文时，如果能恰当地运用描写来表现形象，借以表达某种强烈的思想感情。文章的感染力就一定能有所增强。

叙述和描写在记叙性的文字中都是不可缺少的表现方式。叙述着重于一般情况过程的交待，描写则着重形象的描摹和刻画;如果说叙述是纵的绵延，那么描写便是横的扩展。一篇文字若无叙述，就会显得杂乱无章;没有描写，则会干瘪枯燥，毫无生气可言。

实际上，成功的作品中，常常是叙述与描写交错在一起的。我们所选优秀作文，《奶奶与花》就是叙述与描写交融在一起的，近似于一线串珠式的一篇记叙文。

文中以时间为序，先从小时候家门前有一个很大的“花园”叙述开始，然后再描写人物行为语言、花的形态、气味。从而表现我“深深地爱上花”的过程。接着叙述自己病中见到花的情景，描写花的形态，写出自己感受到“花能给人一种强盛的生命力”。接着是叙述“随着年龄的增长，这种认识愈来愈深”又通过对“死不了”“仙人球”的描写，感悟出“花，让我感到一种无尽的生命力，一种明亮的期望”。第五自然段叙述自己养花的过程。这里又运用描写的方式，描绘出花园的美丽，各种花的特点，表现出花可以陶冶情操的作用。这段描写是比较突出的，描写了花的各种色彩，各种形态，用排比、比喻的手法绘色绘形，有丰富的想象力。为了把文章写得曲折有致，第七段、第八段叙述搬进高层楼房前、后我与奶奶对花的珍爱，对小花园的怀念，这里又有对人物的心理、动作的描写，为“小花园”遭到破坏，我和奶奶沉痛心情做了铺垫。

这篇文章用叙述的方式。介绍了事件发展曲折过程，使文章头绪清楚，脉络分明，重点环节突出。这是文章的一条线。在每个重要环节上，作者都生动形象地描绘了人物的行为、场景、物态，内容丰满。叙述和描写有机地结合在一起，深刻地表达了文章的主题思想，增强文章的感染力。

在作文时，恰当地运用叙述与描写，做到有机结合，要注意以下几点。

一、要熟练掌握叙述与描写的功能，注意二者之间互相依存、互相交通的关系。根据作文内容和思想表达的需要，交错运用。

二、在描写范围比较大、内容比较丰富的地域景物或事物状貌时，(例如《天山景物记》等一些游记式的文章)需要有一条贯穿始终的线索，有一个逐步转移、推进的过程，那么这个线索或过程就要依靠叙述来表现。如我们常讲的“移步换景”的写法，其中对“移步”的交代，往往需要叙述。用时间推移来描写事物或人物的发展变化时，对每个阶段的交代，一般也是要运用叙述来完成的。在这种情况下描写的条理性要依靠叙述来体现。

三、在写故事情节比较强文章时，人物的语言，行动往往是构成情节的重要因素、情节又要依靠叙述来展开，这就需要描写人物语言行动与铺叙故事情节同时进行，也就是说要把叙述故事融化在描写中，或把描写融化在叙述情节中。我们仔细玩味一下作文《奶奶与花》，其中有些地方就是把描写与叙述这样融合在一起的。

我们就应当多选读一些优秀作文或名家的文章，刻意体味一下的相依关系，学习二者的结合形式。使自己的作文能更加条理清晰，情节曲折跌宕，内容丰富有致，更具有感染力。

[写作基础：把叙述与描写结合起来

Sam Walton(1918-)

Contrary to popular belief, Sam Walton (the founder of Wal-Mart) was not from Arkansas. He was actually born in Kingfish, Oklahoma on March 29, 1918. He was raised in Missouri where he worked in his fathers store while attending school. This was his first retailing experience and he really enjoyed it. After graduating from the University of Missouri in 1940, he began his own career as a retail merchant when he opened the first of several franchises of the Ben Franklin five-and-dime franchises in Arkansas.

This would lead to bigger and better things and he soon opened his first Wal-Mart store in 1962 in Rogers, Arkansas. Wal-Mart specialized in name-brands at low prices and Sam Walton was surprised at the success. Soon a chain of Wal-Mart stores sprang up across rural America. Waltons management style was popular with employees and he founded some of the basic concepts of management that are still in use today. After taking the company public in 1970, Walton introduced his "profit sharing plan". The profit sharing plan was a plan for Wal-Mart employees to improve their income dependent on the profitability of the store. Sam Walton believed that "individuals dont win, teams do". Employees at Wal-Mart stores were offered stock options and store discounts. These benefits are commonplace today, but Walton was among the first to implement them. Walton believed that a happy employee meant happy customers and more sales.

Walton believed that by giving employees a part of the company and making their success dependent on the companys success, they would care about the company.

By the 1980s, Wal-Mart had sales of over one billion dollars and over three hundred stores across North America. Wal-Marts unique decentralized distribution system, also Waltons idea, created the edge needed to further spur growth in the 1980s amidst growing complaints that the "superstore" was squelching smaller, traditional Mom and Pop stores. By 1991, Wal-Mart was the largest U.S. retailer with 1,700 stores. Walton remained active in managing the company, as president and CEO until 1988 and chairman until his death. He was awarded the Medal of Freedom shortly before his death.

Walton died in 1992, being the worlds second richest man, behind Bill Gates. He passed his company down to his three sons, daughter and wife. Wal-Mart Stores Incorporated (located in Bentonville, Arkansas) is also in charge of "Sams Club". Wal-Mart stores now operate in Mexico, Canada, Argentina, Brazil, South Korea, China and Puerto Rico. Sam Waltons visions were indeed successful.

1. the + ~ est + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

the most + 形容词 + 名词 + (that) + 主词 + have ever + seen ( known/heard/had/read, etc)

例句：Helen is the most beautiful girl that I have ever seen.

海伦是我所看过最美丽的女孩。

Mr. Chang is the kindest teacher that I have ever had.

张老师是我曾经遇到最仁慈的教师。

2. Nothing is + ~er than to + V

Nothing is + more + 形容词 + than to + V

例句：Nothing is more important than to receive education.

没有比接受教育更重要的事。

3. ~cannot emphasize the importance of ~ too much.(再怎么强调...的重要性也不为过。)

例句：We cannot emphasize the importance of protecting our eyes too much.

我们再怎么强调保护眼睛的重要性也不为过。

4. There is no denying that + S + V ... (不可否认的...)

例句：There is no denying that the qualities of our living have gone from bad to worse.

不可否认的，我们的生活品质已经每况愈下。

5. It is universally acknowledged that + 句子~ (全世界都知道...)

例句：It is universally acknowledged that trees are indispensable to us.

全世界都知道树木对我们是不可或缺的。

6. There is no doubt that + 句子~ (毫无疑问的...)

例句：There is no doubt that our air pollution leaves something to be desired.

毫无疑问的我们的空气污染令人不满意。

7. An advantage of ~ is that + 句子 (……的优点是……)

例句：An advantage of using the solar energy is that it won’t create (produce) any pollution.

使用太阳能的优点是它不会制造任何污染。

8. The reason why + 句子 ~is that + 句子 (……的原因是……)

例句：The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can provide us with fresh air / The reason why we have to grow trees is that they can supply fresh air for us.

我们必须种树的原因是它们能供应我们新鲜的空气。

9. So + 形容词 + be + 主词 + that + 句子 (如此……以致于……)

例句：So precious is time that we can’t afford to waste it.

时间是如此珍贵，我们浪费不起。

10. Adj + as + Subject(主词)+ be, S + V(虽然...)

例句：Rich as our country is, the qualities of our living are by no means satisfactory. 【by no means = in no way = on no account 一点也不】

虽然我们的国家富有，但我们的生活品质一点也不令人满意。

记叙文是以记人、叙事、写景、状物为主，以写人物的经历和事物发展变化为主要内容的一种文体形式。小编收集了描写记叙文的写作基础，欢迎阅读。

一、记叙文的概念和特点

[记叙文的概念]

记叙文,是叙述、描写人物、事件、景物的文章。

即通过人物的言行、事情的经过,来表达一定的中心思想。

或者说,记叙文是通过记叙人物、事件,来表明作者思想感情的一种文体。

记叙文不是狭义的文体概念,它是泛指以叙述、描写为主的写人、记事、写景、状物等文章。写人、记事、摹景、状物均属广义的记叙,以这些表达方式为主的文章,叫记叙文。

[ 记叙文的特点]

1、以人、事、物、景为写作对象;

2、以叙述、描写为主要表达方式;

3、通过对事物的描述,用来反映现实生活，表达作者的思想感情。

4、记叙文的主题,一般是通过对人事物的描述表现出来煌,而不是由作直接讲出来的。

【记叙文·写作】二、记叙文的类型

A、一般来说, 记叙文分为两种：

第一种是“简单记叙文”：只记一人一事,篇幅比较短小;

另一种是“复杂记叙文”：所记的人和事件,不限于一个或一件;写作方法也比较复杂。

记叙文包括范围很广 ，童话、故事、散文、游记、参观记、消息、通讯、报告文学、人物传记、回忆录、家史、短篇小说、长篇小说，都属于记叙文的范畴。

B、记叙文本身也较复杂，它又可公为四种类型：

写人、记事、写景、状物。

写人、记事,只是侧重不同,二者密不可分。写人要叙事;记事要有人。只是人、事在不同的文章里描述的程度不同：

写景、状物有密切关系,其实质是咏物抒情，“情景作文”是二者合一之体现。景也是物(是有观赏价值的物),关键在“情”,然“情”之依托物,乃景、物及表达方式(叙述、描写、议论等)。

【记叙文·写作】三、记叙文的表达方式

记叙文的主要表达方式是记叙和描写，但它并不排斥议论、说明和抒情。

复杂的记叙文,往往是叙述、描写、议论、和抒情相互结合。

为什么会这样来表达呢?

1、因为在记叙文中,所写的人、所记的事、所描摹的事物,总要有作者的看法,总要表达自已的感情。

这种对人或事物发表看法,进行评论——这就是“议论”;

这种对人或事物,表达自已的爱憎感情——这就叫“抒情”。

2、一篇好的记叙文,,不能单纯叙述、描写,而要在叙述、描写过程中,夹以议论、抒情。

3、写记叙文 ,除了运用主要表达方式(记叙和描写)外 ,为了突出形象、加深主题,常常用到到议论、抒情和说明;但议论、抒情应恰到好处使文章更形象生动,更富有感染力,起到画龙点睛的作用。

从上述可见：叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

议论、抒情——是记叙文常用的表达方式。

【记叙文·写作】四、记叙文的“六要素” (上) (上)">

1、记叙文的“六要素”

所谓“六要素”,就是人物、时间、地点、事件发生的原因、经过、结果。

任何一篇完整的记叙文字，都不能缺少其中任何一项,否则,叙述就会出现疑窦,出现悬念;或者有头无尾，线索中断;或者来路不明,无中生有。

2、记叙文的“六要素”也是叙述、记事的“六要素”。

3、怎样理解 “六要素”?

因为一件事情,都要发生在一定的时间、一定的环境(地点)里，有一定的人物参加。凡事情都有其起因(原因)、经过、结果。这些都是写记叙文的主要内容,必须写具体,重点内容要写详细、写充实,才能达到一篇记叙文的写作目的。

要想把一件事情说清楚,只有将与这事情有关的主要因素,交代清楚,就能把这个故事(事情、事件),即文章,显得完整、有条理。

也只有把六要素,交代清楚了,才能更好地表现主题思想。

四、记叙文的“六要素” (下)：灵活运用“六要素

在文章中,如何处理 “六要素”呢?

——要根据文章的实际情况，灵活地加以运用。

A、用三个“要素”,就能写成文章。

写一篇文章,对所写的人物、事件，都要有所侧重。只要能抓住其中三个要素,就可以写出一篇好篇文章。

在“六要素”中,时间、地点是最主要的要素。

因为 ,一切事物都存在一定的时间、地点(空间)里;一切事物又都是在一定的时间、空间内发生，发展，进行演变的。

所以, 时间、地点,必须交代清楚(交代即可,不等要详写)。

在一篇文章里,只要抓住不同的时间、地点的变化,就能突出典型环境、典型人物,就能写同很有特色的记叙文章来。

B、“六要素”的位置。

时间、地点——通常在文章前面作简要交化;

人物——随事件发展,陆续登场;

吸引人结果——作倒叙方法描述;

还可以最后交代原因——以作悬念。

C、有时,有的要素,可不用出现。

“六要素”,是否在文中都得出现?——这要从实际情况而定。

若,时间、地点，是人所共知的;或由其他之描述也能反映出来的;或不交代也没有多大影响的要素——则可省略不写。

如果事件的结果是显而易见的——结局可以不写,以给人留下回味之余地。

D、以时间为例,看“六要素”的交代方法可灵活多样。

□ 一般的交代：

×年×月×日

早晨、中午、傍晚

○ 代替法：

通过“太阳升起来了”、“烈日当空”、“夕阳西下”“夜幕降临”、“天边染上了红霞”等来代替时间的变化。

◎ 精确到：

时、分、秒

※ 大概：

“以前”、“古时候”、“前不久”、“最近”。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(一)、定要素

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

【定要素】

[相同点]

时间、地点——这是写文章的共同要素，一般都应写入文章。

[不同点]

一是,对人物和事件,在每篇目文章里的“侧重点”不同,所以各类文章的主体部分(主要内容)的重点内容也不同(或人、事、物、景)。

写人=时间+地点+人;

记事=时间+地点+事(原因、经过、结果);

写景=时间+地点+景(过去、现在、未来);

状物=时间+地点+物;

抒情=时间+地点+情(见景生情、睹物思人)。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(二)、搭架子

记叙文的写作,要从三个方面入手：

定要素;

搭架子;

会表达。

(二)、搭架子

搭架子——这是记文的结构安排问题。

开头——要简明、要点题。

中间——有“六定”：

1、定(分)段;

2、定各段详略;

3、定事——记一事或几事(一详,余略);

4、定人——写一人或几人(一主,余从);

5、定表达——以叙述为主，兼议论或抒情;;

6、定过渡、照应——使文章曲折、波澜。

结尾——要扣题;收束有力、发人深省、令人回味。

【记叙文·写作】五、记叙文的写作要略(三)、善表达

要善于运用各种表达方式，写好记叙文。

这就必须知道各种表达方式的作用和表现方法。这也是写作中的大事。

叙述、描写——是记叙文的主要表达方式;

[叙述]

叙述是作者对人物、事件、环境作一般交代和说明,不作细致刻画。

一般用在：具体情节，事情因、果、经过的叙述。

[描写]

描写是对人物、事件、环境所作的绘声绘色、细致入微的描写和刻画。要用生动富有感情的、形象的语言,着重刻画人、事、物的具体状态和细节特征。

议论、抒情——是记叙文兼用的表达方式。

[议论]

记叙文的议论,是为了直接点明和加深所写事物的意义,即文章的中心思想。

在记叙文中穿插的议论,可起到画龙点睛作用;有的在段落之间加上一两句议论,还可起到承上启下作用。

记叙文中的议论,可先叙后议,也可先议后叙;有的是不直接对人、事、物发表议论,而是由文中的人物去发议论、作评价

散文在取材和艺术表现的要求上，形象化和抒情性自然是重要的，更要注意记实性。以下，小编为大家介绍散文写作基础知识，供大家参考借鉴，欢迎浏览！

第一节 散文概述

中国是一个散文大国。古今的散文大家和作品，享誉很高。新时期以来，我国的散文创作出现了前所未有的好势头，散文创作持续热闹火爆，涌现了一批专事散文的作家，一些学者、诗人、小说家、评论家、艺术家也跻身其中，众多的大学生也喜爱读写散文。“‘五四’以来的中国散文史，无疑是继先秦、两汉、魏晋、唐宋、明清散文这一座座峰峦之后的又一个高一峰。它最为重大的意义是企图号召整个民族，彻底地走向人性*的解放，树立科学和民-主、平等和自一由的现代文明观念。多少散文家都通过自己洋溢着独特个性*的笔角，在不同的领域之内，从种种不同的视角，程度不等地完成着这个神圣的使命。”（林非《傅德岷主编〈中国现代散文发展史〉序》）

1998年6月，中国当代散文创作研讨会认为：我国当代散文发展到今天，取得了很大的成绩，发表、出版了一大批优秀的散文，它们坚持对人生的始终关怀，坚持文学应该有益于人心世道，应该净化、美化和慧化人心，艺术上坚持众美并具、雅俗共赏的原则，成为色*、香、味俱全的文化品位的精神食粮。同时，当代散文也面临创新与发展的问题。如今的读者对各类散文家及其作品褒贬不一，文坛上存在多种声音，表明散文创作同样是“没有最好，只有更好”。散文作者认识到这一点才能正确对待他人和自己。散文作者应该顺应时代的潮流，关注社会人生，要以自身的人格力量打动读者。散文属于高雅的精神产品，在经济大潮的冲击下，应当有一个清醒的对抗“商品”的精神。散文的开放是精神的开放、境界的开放，对于境界的把握，应比读者高出一个层次。中外散文名家的成功经验证明，散文创作必须讲究风格和形式，没有风格的写作最终会失去创作的个性*。

学习散文写作有两条途径，其一是从摹仿入手，跟在他人后面亦步亦趋。这种没有理论的盲目实践，往往事倍功半。其二是在阅读了一些散文，有了些感性*认识，然后学习散文写作理论，使感性*认识上升到理性*认识的阶段，再阅读名家范文，然后从事写作实践，这样就可以事半功倍。我们应取第二条途径，即：阅读→研究→阅读→写作。

首先，要明白散文的定义。什么是散文呢？有广义和狭义两种概念。广义的散文，在古代指的是一切不押韵的文章。刘勰在《文心雕龙》的《总术》篇写道：“今之常言，有‘文’有‘笔’，以为无韵者‘笔’也，有韵者‘文’也。”所谓“笔”，就是指韵文以外的一切记叙性*和议论性*的文体，这些文体就散文。不过，古代没有“散文”这一个名称；“散文”这个名称是“五四”时期才有的。在现代，广义的散文包括了除去诗歌、小说、戏剧、影视文学之外的一切叙事性*、议论性*、抒情性*的文体，如秦牧在《海阔天空的散文领域》中说，“不属于其他文学体裁，而又具有文学味道的一切篇幅短小的文章，都属于散文的范围”。这样，就有了抒情散文，叙事散文和议论散文等的分类。

狭义的散文则专指抒情散文。这是因为随着文体的发展，叙事散文中的通讯特写、传记文学、报告文学等，已经发展成为独立的文体，各成一类；议论散文则有了专门的名称——杂文，也从散文中分了出来，剩下的只有抒情散文，这就是狭义的散文。

我们这里要学习的主要是抒情散文，也涉及叙事散文和其它类型的散文。习作者可以根据自己的人生阅历、文化素养和爱好，或写作抒情散文，或作叙事散文，或写文化散文，或作智慧散文，或写游历散文，或作其它类型的散文。

其次，要认清散文的写作特点。散文是一种内容丰富、题材广泛、篇幅短小、体裁多样、形式灵活、文情并茂的文体。在写作上，它有以下六个特点：

（一）内容丰富，题材广泛散文的内容涉及自然万物、各色*人等、古今中外、政事私情……可以说是无所不包、无所不有的。可以写国内外和社会上的矛盾、斗争，写经济建设，写文艺论争，写伦理道德，也可以写文艺随笔，读书笔记，日记书简；既可以是风土人物志、游记和偶感录，也可以是知识小品、文坛轶事；它能够谈天说地，更可以抒情写趣。凡是能给人以思想启迪、美的感受、情操的陶治，使人开阔视野，丰富知识，心旷神怡的，都可选作散文的题材。

（二）思想警辟，诗意盎然散文多是真情实感的产物，那些优秀的篇章，都有思想火花的闪耀，表现着作者对时代和人生的深刻认识与精辟见解。徐迟说：“ 文学作品，应该有思想。散文也不例外。它要求有特别锐利的思想。即使是抒情散文，也要求有不但是锐利的，而且是特别锐利的思想。不到五百字的《岳陽楼记》，‘先天下之忧而忧，后天下之乐而乐’是一个光辉灿烂的思想。抒情散文固然很多，写到这样的境界就并不很多。然而，这正是散文、抒情散文所应追求的境界。”“凡掷地作金石声的作品差不多总是包含一着鲜明的思想、结结实实的思想。有闪光的思想之焦点，飞跃着不灭的思想之火焰的。”（《说散文》）我们读鲁迅的《雪》，可以学到鲁讯从飞雪和雪罗汉身上探索到的美好、光明以及与冷酷现实进行顽强斗争的革命精神；读茅盾的《白杨礼赞》，可以看出茅盾怎样从平凡的白杨树身上联想到北方农民的坚强不屈和英勇豪迈的形象；读袁鹰的《井冈翠竹》，可以领悟作者从普通的一毛一竹思考到井冈山人民的献身革命与建设的精神品质。秦牧说得好：“思想像一根线串起了生活的珍珠，没有这根线，珍珠只能够弃散在地。”散文的优秀作品还每每是诗意盎然的。杨朔说过：“好的散文就是一首诗。”苏联作家巴乌斯托夫斯基也指出：“真正的散文是充满诗意的，就像苹果饱含一着果汁一样。”因此，高尔基对青年作者说：“我们的青年是否也可以试一下，热情地用散文来写人们，使得散文也自然而然地变成为诗。”（引自《回忆高尔基》）杨朔的散文之所以写得那样好，原因之一就他“总是拿着当诗一样写。”他告诉我们：“不要从狭义方面来理解诗意两个字。杏花春雨，固然有诗，铁马金戈的英雄气概，更富有鼓舞人心的诗力。你在斗争中，劳动中，时常会有些东西触一动你的心，使你激昂，使你欢乐，使你忧愁，使你深思，这不是诗又是什么？凡是遇到这样动情的事，我就要反复思索，到后来往往形成我文章里的思想意境。”（《东风第一枝·小跋》）他的名篇《荔枝蜜》、《茶花赋》、《海市》……都是诗意盎然之作，既是散文，又是诗篇。

（三）短小精悍，自一由灵活有人称散文是文艺战线上的“轻骑兵”，就是因为它具有篇章短小精悍、形式灵活自一由的特点。我国古代散文的名篇多数是很短的，如韩愈的《马说》１５０字，柳宗元的《小石潭记》１９３字。现代散文的名篇多数也是很短的，如许地山的《落花生》４８２字，茅盾的《白杨礼赞》１０７４字。当然，较长的优秀散文也是有的，但它与一般记叙文相比，仍是精悍之作。所以散文写作要求做到短小精悍，以小见大，言近旨远。

从形式上来看，散文较其它的文学体裁更为自一由活泼、灵活多样。鲁迅在《怎么写》中指出：“散文的体裁，其实是大可以随便的。”冰心在《谈散文》中说：“散文比较自一由”。当然，这里说的“随便”、“自一由”不是毫不经心、信手乱写。自一由灵活的散文写作，是“装着随便的涂鸦模样，其实却是用心雕心刻骨的苦心的文章。”（厨川白村：《出了象牙之塔》）散文写作自一由、灵活这一特点，在写作上，首先指的是表达方式灵活自如，不局限于某一种表达方法。因而，散文写作可以记人、叙事、状物、写景、抒情、说理、呐喊、怒吼、抨击、赞颂、幽默、讽刺、高歌、浅唱、漫谈、絮语、嘻笑怒骂、妙语解颐……各式各样、应有尽有。其次，写作者可以自一由、灵活地选用各种体裁来写，赋铭、速写、游记、书信、日记、序跋、偶感、随笔、回忆录、读后感……，任人选择，因人而异，都能写成佳作。（四）形散神收，博而不杂宋代大散文家、诗人苏轼在《文说》中说：“吾文如万斛泉一涌，不择地而出。在平地，滔滔汩一汩，虽一日千里无难。及其与山石曲折，随物赋形而不可知也。所可知者，常行于所当行，常止于不可不止，如是而已矣。”

“形散神不散”，这是许多散文作家的经验之谈。散文必须“散”，必须“博”，也就是说从表面上看，从形式上看，它运笔如风，不拘成法，似乎散漫无章，行文时断时续，时而勾勒描绘，时而倒叙联想，时而感情迸发，时而侃侃议论，既有天文地理，又有伦理人情，这段写甲地，那段却写乙地。但是，它的“神” 却是始终不散的，是首尾一贯的，是表现作者一定的思想、感情的。“神收”、“不杂”，就指的是文章始终紧紧围绕一个中心，贯穿一条红线，做到结构紧凑，层次分明，详略得当，重点突出。例如秦牧的散文《社稷坛抒情》，是既“散”又“博”的，然而，尽管它天上地下，古今中外，包罗万象，却始终围绕着“歌颂赞美养育我们的土地和创造我们伟大民族文化历史的劳动人民”这一主题思想。因此，从形式上说，散文贵“散”，而在构思上、组织上，则散文忌“散”。散文写作具有的这一辩证统一的特点，使得它与其它文体区别开来。

（五）直抒胸臆，自具风格文学作品都是带有感情的，但小说、戏剧的作者，往往把自己强烈的感情倾注在人物形象的塑造上，作者对生活的感受、对人物的爱憎褒贬，一般是通过间接的方式表现出来的。而散文则不一样，它常常象诗歌一样，每每用直接抒情的方式抒写胸臆，不仅使读者知其理、晓其事，而且悟其心、感其情，因此，散文要求作者写一真情实感。真情是散文的生命，只有直抒胸臆，把真情实感捧给读者，才会赢得读者的喜爱。作家贾平凹在回答“散文创作要不要绝对真实”的问题时说：“这个问题争论很多，又都没有一定结论。我个人的体会，还是倾向于‘绝对真实’四个字。所谓真实，主要是指在感情以及运用环境和事件上。古人写的散文，题材也是很广泛的，但古人写散文，都是有感而发。今人写散文，多多少少存在着一些为写而写的现象，所以在绝对真实问题上就出现了所谓‘ 理论与实践上的不一致。’也正因为如此，这些散文就写得不那么成功了。当然，作为文学作品应该生活化，生活也应该作品化，散文尤是这样。”（《怎样写好散文》）

写作要“文如其人”，散文更是这样。名家都有自己的风格，他们的作品即使不署名，读者也能从风格上看出作者。如鲁迅的散文深刻、精炼、峭拔，虽然他写文章经常改换笔名，然而“何家干”的文章，明眼人一看就看出是鲁迅。郭沫若的散文气势浩荡，又清丽、缠一绵。茅盾的散文与郭沫若的浩荡相反，表现为深刻而细微。还有，老舍的散文诙谐，冰心的散文慈爱，叶圣陶严谨畅达，方纪潇洒俊一逸，等等。初学写作者一时不可能形成自己的散文风格，但是必须向这些各有风格的散文作家学习，经过多次的实践、创造，努力形成自己的散文风格。

（六）惨淡经营，文采斐然优秀的散文不可能是“掉以轻心”写出来的，它们都是作者惨淡经营、刻意加工的结晶。秦牧指出：“一篇小小的散文也许写作时间仅仅是一两个小时，但却要求作家深厚的素养，而且不断扩大和丰富这种素养。把散文当作是‘小功夫’，‘掉以轻心’的写作态度，是很不利于我们散文创作的繁荣发展的。即使是怎样熟练的名作家，我们也要求他们在写作一篇小文章时，采取‘大象搏狮用全力，搏兔也用全力’的态度。”有些散文家提倡散文的“整体美 ”，也是要求作者在内容和形式上都“惨淡经营”。整篇文章是惨淡经营、刻意加工写成的，它的语言就是精炼的，文采斐然的。这是由于作者运用的是散文笔调。那么什么是“散文笔调”呢？可以说，散文笔调一方面表现在它的行文灵活自如，另一方面则表现在它十分讲究文采。散文的文采不仅有华丽的，而且有朴素的。

学习散文写作，既要掌握华丽的文采，也要掌握朴素的文采。写得华丽并不容易，写得朴素更难。徐迟的文章是很有文采的，他常用赋的方法兼用比、兴修辞，使得文采华美。但是他说：“只有写得朴素了，才能显出真正的文采来。古今大散文家，都是这样写作的。越是大作家，越到成熟之时，越是写得朴素。而文采闪耀在朴素的篇页之上。”我们还要看到，不管是华丽的还是朴素的，散文的富有文采的语言都是从新鲜、活泼的口语中来的，也是对优秀的古代散文创造性*的继承，也是作者仔细选择、锤炼和加工的结果。

第二节 散文的写作

一、精于立意

“凡文以意为主”。散文的“意”是存在于深厚的生活土壤和浩瀚的生活海洋中的。要获得它，必须依靠我们对生活的深入观察、感受、理解。因此，散文立意只要从生活实际出发，凭着鲜明的感受，锋锐的观察能力，同人民同时代共同跳动的脉博，深厚的感情，丰富的想象，深沉的思索，就会感到我们生活中洋溢着的诗意。这诗意，就是使我们心灵受到触一动的东西，使我们眼睛豁然开朗的东西，思想突然升华的东西，感情更为纯洁的东西，它就诗的灵感。我们要为自己的散文立意就要赶紧捕捉住它。因为这里面有心灵的颤一动，思想的闪光。刘白羽说：“哪怕是微弱的闪耀也比没有闪耀要好，这才不是一般的照相，这才是文学。”（《早晨的太陽》序）

譬如，一个作家去看茶花，品种繁多，美不胜收的茶花引起了他的思索：“茶花是美啊。凡是生活中美的事物都是劳动创造的。是谁白天黑夜、积年累月，拿自己的汗水浇着花，象抚育自己儿女一样抚育着花秧，终于培养出这样绝色*的好花？应该感谢那为我们美化生活的人。”这就是思想的闪耀，作家十分宝贵它，就及时把这个意思记下来。后来，他听一位花匠介绍一种茶花说：“这叫童子面，花期迟，刚打开骨朵，开起来颜色*深红，倒是最好看的。”并没有引起思索，但他是记住这种茶花的名称的。过了一会，恰巧一群小孩也来看茶花，这事引起了作家的注意，他看见孩子们一个个仰着鲜红的小一脸，甜蜜蜜地笑着，唧唧喳喳叫个不休，心灵猛然一颤，不禁脱口说出：“童子面茶花开了。”而花匠听了这话省悟后说：“真的呢，再没有比这种童子面更好看的茶花了。”这话使得一个念头突然跳出他的脑海，他说：“我得到一幅画的构思。如果用最浓最艳的朱红画一大朵含露乍开的童子面茶花，岂不正可以象征着祖国的面貌？”于是，作家就把看茶花引起的感受、思索写成一篇文情并茂的散文《茶花赋》。这个作家就杨朔。而读者、评论者通过阅读就可以悟出作家写此文的立意：歌颂如花的祖国，歌颂美化祖国的劳动人民。

二、善于构思

构思是写作者对生活素材进行去粗取精、去伪存真、由此及彼、由表及里的加工、提炼的过程。写作者要在构思中为散文的思想内容寻找尽量完美的艺术形式，使思想性*与艺术性*达到和谐的统一。因此，构思要解决立意、选材、创造意境、确定体裁、基本手法、布局谋篇等问题。这里着重讲讲确定体裁、寻找线索、创造意境三个问题。

第一、确定体裁。散文的体裁灵活多样。我们有了一个好的意思（思想），并且选取了表现这一意思（思想）的材料，那么就要考虑：是写成书信体，还是写成日记体？是写成随笔，还是写成偶感？是写成游记，还是写成回忆录？是写成序或跋，还是写成读后感？确定具体体裁的原则是内容决定形式，形式为内容服务。譬如到苏州旅游之后，你感到要向父母报告一下自己的游踪和观感，你就可以写成书信；你在游玩中遇到一些使你感动的人或事，你就可以写随笔、漫录；你在游玩虎丘、狮子林、寒山寺、西园、留园等地之后，觉得寒山寺的钟特别吸引人，并引起你的遐思，你就可以写成如《社稷坛抒情》那样诗意浓郁的抒情文；你如果是旧地重游，吃到苏州某种土特产而忆起往事，则可以偏重于回忆，写成《小米的回忆》那样的回忆式的散文……总之，要根据立意内容来确定表现形式——具体的体裁。

第二、寻找线索。散文的材料应该是很“散”的，每一个材料都是一颗珍珠，但这些珍珠互相之间有内在的联系，我们写作者要寻找一根线，用笔作针，将这些散乱的珍珠穿起来，成为一串光彩夺目的珠圈、项链。那末，有哪些东西可以作为线索呢？一是感情线索。我们的感情在生活中发生变化，如由厌恶到喜爱，或从喜欢到厌恶，就可以用这条感情的线索把一些似乎没有关联的材料联结起来。如杨朔写《荔枝蜜》就是利用感情线索，才把儿时记忆、从化疗养、荔枝树林、苏轼诗词、喜尝蜂蜜、参观蜂场、赞扬蜜蜂、农民劳动和夜晚梦蜂等事串连起来的。

二是事物线索。如曹靖华在日常生活中感受到：今天仍然需要发扬延安时期“小米加步一槍一”的艰苦奋斗精神，就搜罗记忆中有关小米的往事，用小米把发生在不同地点、不同时间、不同情况下的事件组合在一起。许多托物咏志的散文也是以物为线索的，如冰心的《樱花赞》。

三是人物线索。如写某一个人物在不同时间、不同地点的活动，可以用这个人物作为线索串连起来，也可以用另一个人物把不同时间、不同地点、不同人物、不同内容的事物串连起来。这个人物还可以是写作者本人——“我”。

四是思绪线索。如面对某一事物、景物沉思遐想，“鹜趋八极，心游万仞”，“观古今于须臾，抚四海于一瞬”，“笼天地于形内，挫万物于笔端”。就能通过联想与想象，把有关的材料组织在一起，表达原定的主题思想。如秦牧的《土地》、杨朔的《海市》、贾平凹的《丑石》等。

五是景物线索。“一切景语皆情语也”。通过景物描写，在写景中融进写作者的思想感情。

如《天山景物记》、《西湖即景》。

六是行动线索。如游记以游程行踪为线索。刘白羽写《长江三日》就以游程为主线来写，当然，全文还有一条哲理性*的思绪线索：“战斗——航进——穿过黑夜走向黎明”。

“文无定法”，散文的线索很多，以上六种线索是较为人们常用的。

第三、创造意境。散文的意境是情和景的交一融，是意和境的统一，是作者浸透了时代精神的主观感情、意志与自然环境和社会环境的统一。意是灵魂，境是血肉。意高则境深，意低则境浅。散文的这种意境应是诗的意境，即所谓“诗情画意”。它是可以捉摸的，可以感受的，是物质的，形象的，但它又是动人心弦的，震颤魂魄的，是精神的，性*灵的。如朱自清写《荷塘月色*》，全篇着力于“淡淡的情趣”，顺着沿路走来、伫立凝想的线索，通过描绘使小路、荷塘、花姿、月色*、树影、雾气、灯光……色*彩斑烂，可见可感，而叶香、蛙鸣、蝉声，又可味可闻。更加上心情的抒写，巧妙的譬喻，创造出一种淡雅、闲静、情景交一融的意境。这种优美的意境，正是散文写作者要努力追求、刻意创造的。

构思方法可以向前人借鉴，更需自己创新。过去就有一个青年作者发明出一种“散文快速构思法”，为《青春》、《采石》等刊物的编辑所重视。

三、巧于布局散文一般篇幅短小，布局有方便的地方，但要布局得好，却因篇幅短小而有其难处。这犹如一座大山上有小堆的乱石，常常无损大山的壮观。但是一个小园中有一堆乱石，就很容易破坏园林之美。因此，散文的布局——结构十分重要。参观苏州园林，从它精巧的建筑布局上，我们可以得到启示，可以借鉴它的园林建筑布局来考虑散文的布局。叶圣陶在《苏州园林》中写道，苏州园林建筑的设计者和匠师们“讲究亭台轩榭的布局，讲究假山池沼的配合，讲究花草树木的映衬，讲究近景远景的层次。总之，一切都要为构成完美的图画而存在，决不容许有欠美伤美的败笔。”作为散文的写作来说，也要这样讲究材料的布局、配合、映衬、层次。苏州园林不讲究对称，但散文布局有时则需讲究对称，或对比。叶圣陶又说：“苏州园林在每一个角度都注意图画美。”那么，散文的整体布局要讲究艺术性*，它的局部的布局不是同样要讲究艺术性*吗？至于布局的具体方法是很多的，前面讲的线索问题也与布局有关。这里可以着重提一下的是：不少散文的布局都要巧设“文眼”，开头往往似谈家常，结尾则加以深化，画龙点睛，“卒章显其志”，并且首尾呼应，通体一贯，有机结合。初学散文写作，不妨学习这种布局的方法。

四、明于断续散文要“散”得起来，除了选材要有技巧之外，就是在叙写上要注意断续的技巧。明于断续，才能使散文的行文上挥洒自如。贾平凹说：“记住：越是你知道多的地方，越要不写或者写得很少；空白，这正是你要写的地方呢。”他认为，“讲究了‘空白’处理，一是散文可以散起来，断续之，续断之，文能‘飞起’，神妙便显也。二是散文可以含蓄起来，古人也讲过：意在笔先，故得举止闲暇，看似胡乱说，骨子里却有分数。”（《怎样写好散文》）我们要多阅读古人优秀的散文作品，学习他人的断续技巧，在写作实践中多次运用之后就必然熟能生巧。

第三节 散文写作的模式

记人散文模一式

【开头】

1 感情化语言概括叙述。我和该人，重点在后。介绍该人，如肖像描写。2 两者关系及该人精神特质的议论。

【中间】

▲一种情况：一件事。从开头、发展到结尾，细致叙述和描写。

▲另一种情况：几件事。每件事即每层次前，可以用对该人精神特质的一个因素领起。以对该人的感情体验及整体议论来贯穿几件事。

【结尾】

1 重申特质，照应开头。2 深化感情关系，发出感慨。

抒情散文模一式

【开头】

1 叙述自己与景物的关系。2 议论景物和自己。

【中间】

1 描写景物，分出层次，细致动人。2 联想发挥，更大意义。

【结尾】感慨

（作者：不详）